Paper 1 Innovation in Organization
To start, watch the video below…
Connected: The amazing power of social networks and how they shape our lives"
- Explain the value of diverse perspectives in the process of innovation.
- How is this related to the concept of strong versus weak ties?
- Why do most large organizations seem to have trouble coming up with and implementing innovations?
- If you were running a large organization, how would you make sure that innovative thinking was not only “safe,” but encouraged? Why is it important to make it “safe to fail”? (See Slide 5 in lesson 3 PPT)
In addition to the course readings and lectures (which you may cite along with other sources), you should use LIRN to find at least one additional article related to this topic. One is provided for you (Russel and Russel [1992] in the Readings for Lessons 3 and 4.
The full reference is as follows (Click on Link below):
Takahashi, S. (2015, March). Play this word game to come up with original ideas.
The paper should be 6-8 pages long. It should include at least 4 citations, using APA rules. Use 12-pt Times New Roman font and upload it here to your Canvas platform. Be sure to view the rubric to see how your paper will be graded. (see rubric in the first document PAPER ASSIGNMENT 1)
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PAPER ASSIGNMENT #1
Due Feb 18 by 11:59pm Points 100 Submitting a text entry box, a website url, a media recording, or a file upload
Start Assignment
Connected: The amazing power of social networks and how they shape our lives" (https://www.edu-apps.org/lti_public_resources/?tool_id=youtube#/youtube/search/details/HwbX4HUOdE8)
Individual Written Assignment 1 CLOs #3, 5, & 7
To start, watch the video below…
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Connected: The amazing power of social networks and how they shaConnected: The amazing power of social networks and how they sha……
3/3/22, 9:21 PM PAPER ASSIGNMENT #1
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Address the following:
1. Explain the value of diverse perspectives in the process of innovation. 2. How is this related to the concept of strong versus weak ties? 3. Why do most large organizations seem to have trouble coming up with and implementing
innovations? 4. If you were running a large organization, how would you make sure that innovative thinking was not
only “safe,” but encouraged? Why is it important to make it “safe to fail”? (See Slide 5 of the Lesson 3 Power Point)
VIDEO (Click on Link): In connection with (4), please view the following short TED talk by Shimpei Takahashi. (https://www.ted.com/talks/shimpei_takahashi_play_this_game_to_come_up_with_original_ideas) (https://www.ted.com/speakers/shimpei_takahashi)
In addition to the course readings and lectures (which you may cite along with other sources), you should use LIRN to find at least one additional article related to this topic. One is provided for you (Russel and Russel [1992] in the Readings for Lessons 3 and 4.
The full reference is as follows (Click on Link below):
Takahashi, S. (2015, March). Play this word game to come up with original ideas. (https://www.ted.com/speakers/shimpei_takahashi)
(https://www.ted.com/speakers/shimpei_takahashi) (https://www.ted.com/speakers/shimpei_takahashi)
Deliverables
The paper should be 6-8 pages long. It should include at least 4 citations, using APA rules. Use 12-pt Times New Roman font and upload it here to your Canvas platform, Paper Assignment #1. Be sure to view the rubric to see how your paper will be graded.
General Guidelines
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Most classes have a 2 paper requirement per course. Please be sure to address the following requirements when completing your papers:
The cover page and reference page/s are not included in the above-stated page requirement. These should be in addition to page requirements. Papers need to be formatted in proper APA 7th Edition style. Each paper requires a minimum of at least three outside peer-reviewed sources for your references (unless stated otherwise in the guidance above).
o Acceptable/credible sources include: Academic journals and books, industry journals, and the class textbook. To include additional types of sources, please review the “Guidelines for finding and utilizing required references for your paper,” shared below.
Using your textbook is highly recommended to demonstrate that you have read the required material and/or are connecting new thoughts to the course text/learnings.
Guidelines for finding and utilizing required references for your paper:
For a formal research paper, you are required to locate, understand, and integrate a certain number of peer reviewed journal articles and/or published books, as these are considered reliable and valid sources of information by academics and industry. The best source of these articles is to search through your CiAM Library (LIRN). However, if you find a website you would really like to share in your paper, you can do so if it is NOT counted as one of your reliable/valid articles/books (i.e., goes above and beyond the required amount of reliable/valid sources), and if it is NOT the basis/foundation of your paper. Otherwise, there is no way to demonstrate that: 1. You have done true research and have given the appropriate level of thought to your paper; and 2. There is no way to validate that the information you have received off of the internet has been fact checked.
Here are some guidelines on how to think about this process:
1. Using Wikipedia: This internet source is very popular, and although there may be some great articles found there, there is no formal process (at this point) for what is posted to be fact checked. Meaning, what you find there is not always true. However, if you read an interesting article, you can go to their references, check on who they researched, then go to that ORIGINAL work (locate it in our library), and then read through that article and reference that article (not Wikipedia). If you want to cite Wikipedia, you may do so if it follows the guidelines shared above (i.e., is NOT the basis of your paper, and is just a supplemental share going above and beyond the minimum required reliable/valid works). You may also simply visit Wikipedia just to get more general information on a subject before you start your formal research process).
2. General informational websites and business websites: These follow the same rules as shared above.
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Individual Research Paper Grading Rubric
Plagiarism
According to www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plagiarized (https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/plagiarized)
PLAGARIZE: transitive verb (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/transitive) : to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own : use (another's production) without crediting the source intransitive verb (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intransitive) : to commit literary theft : present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source
With this said, it is very important to show backing for your thought, so if you are summarizing/paraphrasing another’s work, cite that work, or any work that shows backing for your thought directly after you have written it. Each paragraph starts over when citing, so remember that citing in one paragraph does not cover your reference requirements for your whole paper.
Also, if you quote more than 3 words in a row that are exactly the same as your source, be sure to add in quote marks around those words, then add the page or para# with the rest of the reference citation at the end of the quote mark. Your APA 7 Edition guide is an excellent resource. It is highly recommended that you own one. Our Librarian and/or our Writing Tutors are also very helpful and FREE! Be sure to utilize the CiAM tutor, [email protected] (mailto:[email protected]) , if you are needing support with grammar before you submit your paper. This is an incredible resource and can make the difference between earning an A or a lower grade. Once your paper is reviewed by the tutors, make the recommended changes and then submit your paper to your course before the due date.
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Criteria Ratings Pts
20 pts
30 pts
Organization
20% 20 to >18.0 pts Excellent
Written work progresses logically and ideas are well- developed and cohesive. There is a clear beginning, middle and end. Paragraphs are well developed; transitions are seamless
18 to >16.0 pts Good
Written work progresses logically and ideas are fairly complete. Transitions between paragraphs and ideas are occasionally missing or incomplete. Paragraphs are not consistently cohesive; However, the reader can follow the paper’s flow.
16 to >14.0 pts Needs Improvement
Written work often does not progress logically and ideas are often not fully formed. Transitions between paragraphs and ideas are often missing or incomplete. Lack of cohesion within paragraphs makes it difficult to follow the paper’s flow.
14 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Requirements Written work lacks logical flow and ideas are not fully formed. Transitions are not visible. Paragraphs are not cohesive, and the reader cannot follow the flow of the paper. No organization apparent.
Content
30% 30 to >27.0 pts Excellent
Demonstrates strong or adequate knowledge of the materials; correctly represents knowledge from the readings and sources.
27 to >24.0 pts Good
Some significant but not major errors or omissions in demonstration of knowledge.
24 to >21.0 pts Needs Improvement Major errors or omissions in demonstration of knowledge.
21 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Requirements
Fails to demonstrate knowledge of the materials. No knowledge of material.
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Criteria Ratings Pts
30 pts
10 pts
Research
30% 30 to >27.0 pts Excellent
Sources or examples meet required criteria, are scholarly and are well chosen to provide substance and perspectives on the issue under examination. Clear use of LIRN or other research databases
27 to >24.0 pts Good
Sources or examples meet required criteria but are less‐than adequately chosen to provide substance and perspectives on the issue under examination.
24 to >21.0 pts Needs Improvement Sources or examples meet required criteria and are poorly chosen to provide substance and perspectives on the issue under examination.
21 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Requirements
Source or example selection and integration of knowledge from the course is clearly deficient. Few or no sources used.
Writing and Grammar
10%
10 to >9.0 pts Excellent
The writing is free of grammatical and stylistic errors; sentence structure is used effectively; sentences are varied and precise; prose style is appropriate to the subject. Active voice is apparent.
9 to >8.0 pts Good
The writing has one to three grammatical and stylistic errors; sentence structure is generally effectively; sentences are varied but awkward at times or passive voice is apparent.
8 to >7.0 pts Needs Improvement The writing has more than three grammatical and stylistic errors; paper requires additional proofreading, as some errors impede the flow of the reading; sentences are not varied and passive voice is used often.
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7 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Requirements The writing has substantial errors in grammar and style so that the basic ideas are lost; the writing lacks clarity and sentence structure is confusing; errors in spelling are frequent enough to be a major distraction to the reader. Ineffective writing and grammar.
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Total Points: 100
Criteria Ratings Pts
10 pts
APA Usage
10% 10 to >9.0 pts Excellent
Utilizes APA formats for headings (including title page, section breaks), in- text citations, and reference lists
9 to >8.0 pts Good
Utilizes APA formats, including for references, but occasionally forgets in-text references or other minor errors
8 to >7.0 pts Needs Improvement Incorrect formatting of references, few in-text citations. Reference does not meet APA guidelines
7 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Requirements Incorrect formatting of references or no reference list, rare or no in-text citations
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Lessons 3 and 4 Readings
The following is a list of your required readings for Lessons 3 and 4. I have written notes on most of these for your information and edification. The ones marked with two asterisks are essential. You are expected to read all of them. Those with one asterisk are important, and you should try to read/view all of them. Those without asterisks are optional, but interesting if you can find the time.
**Drucker, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Chapters 11 and 17
LIRN Article (read this in connection with Paper 1):
** An Examination of the Effect of Organizational Norms , Organizational Structure , and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy (Russell & Russell, Journal of Management, vol.18, no.4, 1992)
http://www.ou.edu/russell/pdf/JOM92.pdf
Corporate entrepreneurship efforts tend to focus on process, since innovation often (usually) requires a lot of trial and error and serendipity. On the outside, it often looks chaotic. Innovation is positively correlated with environmental uncertainty (surprise, surprise). Organizational structure plays a key role: When ideas are generated in a centralized, autocratic system of control, they are more likely to be screened out. An informal, decentralized structure is more likely to generate innovations. The presence of norms which encourage or impede innovation rounds out the set of possible causes. On page 646, if you read that far without falling asleep (as I did), is a listing of the comparatively modest hypotheses of the authors. After analyzing their data, using regression and factor analysis, they concluded that corporate environments with innovation-supporting norms, operating in uncertain environments were the most likely sites for the generation of successful innovations. If you can understand this, you can skip the ponderous “academic-speak” of the authors and the factor analysis.
**Video: Innovation at Proctor and Gamble
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvIUSxXrffc&feature=fvwrel
This video consists of an interview with P&G CEO, A.G. Lafley, who just wrote a book on innovation. The fundamental premise is that innovation can be an everyday practice inside a company. P&G should know: They are one of the most innovative and adaptive consumer products companies that have ever existed. For them, innovation isn’t just about new technology. Rather, they see it from the customer’s point of view, which includes the usage experience, the shopping experience, and the “brand,” in addition to the functional benefits (to the customer) of their products. Their thinking is comprehensive, and includes all elements of the product’s production and distribution, in the interests of giving the customer the best value for the lowest feasible price. “The customer is the boss” is a slogan there. If you really think about it, this is what happens “above” the top management role. in the MBO model. The objectives of a company are determined by the customers’ needs and preferences. The job of top management is to know what these are and to build the company’s products, processes, and strategies around them. Anything else is either a direct support for these products, processes and strategies, or else it is waste and shouldn’t be done. They always engage the customer at the “front end.” As soon as they have a prototype, they find consumers to assist in the final configuration of the product. This is the theme of Lafley’s book and this video, in which a number of good ideas are presented.
What is the “innovation review process”? All the key players are always present for this. The heads of R&D, Marketing, the business unit leaders, and the CEO are all there. They identify the two or three issues which, if they can’t get them right, will result in the decision to shut the project down. This is different from the more common approach: Most people do the easy stuff first, saving the hard questions for later. He prefers to tackle the “killer” issues first, for efficiency reasons.
The moderator asked, “Can I make innovation a daily practice in my corner of the organization even if top management isn’t involved?” At P&G you can, as long as you are customer focused. Then you have to have a strategy: A few key decisions such as where you will “play,” where you won’t play. Then you need to show that you are really in touch with the customer. If the CEO isn’t engaged, and taking ultimate responsibility for the innovation, innovation will either not occur or else it will be hindered. The organization needs to be “open.”
What keeps the people involved motivated for the (sometimes) several years it takes to launch a new product is the ongoing dialogue with the customers. Lafley used the phrase “create a new customer” in his closing remarks. A customer is a “creation” of a business—as Drucker has argued.
*Video: Think like an innovator
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FSxSinVVRLw&feature=plcp
Interview with Jeff Dyer, of BYU, author of The Innovator’s DNA, co-authored with Hal Ferguson and Clay Christensen (who wrote The Innovator’s Dilemma [1997]). He identified five skills of disruptive innovators. These skills are:
(1) Questioning: They asked questions like “How can we ‘catch’ money?” (resulted in PayPal)
(2) Observing: (Founder of Starbuck’s was in Italy and asked, “How can we create this European style of coffee shop in the States?”)
(3) Networking: (Founder asked question, “How could a coke machine communicate with a wireless distribution center and say, ‘I’m out of coke’ and get replenished?” He asked, “What if everyone had a wireless interactive device and could send messages to whomever they wanted to?” Somehow this turned into Blackberry)
(4) Experimenting: (Dell computers founder tinkered with computers all his life. He found that he could build a computer for 30% less than an off-the-shelf computer made by IBM.)
(5) These four sources lead to “associational thinking.” So Steve Jobs once took a course in calligraphy and got an inspiration that wound up on the screens of MacIntosh and the toolkits of Desktop Publisher.
Dyer and his co-authors found that these five things could be turned into an entrepreneurial discipline. The discussant asked, “So how might I improve my ability to be an ‘experimenter’?” Dyer responded, “One way is to practice taking products apart, then putting them back together to see what you learn.” This applies to processes, too. If you keep trying, you’ll find out what doesn’t work and that is valuable too. Visiting new countries or other companies—new experiences in general—can stimulate new ideas. The discussant then pointed out that people are often busy doing their “real jobs,” and asked, “So where would they find the time to do these things?” Dyer responded, “If you don’t take action now, in ten years you’ll be way behind.” So, the company has to create time and space for these kinds of activities. If you want your team to be innovative, you have to give them time for questioning, observing, networking, and experimenting.
This material confirms both the lecture materials and some of the videos on the value of “diversity of perspectives.”
*Video: Tomorrow’s Innovators
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ckSvOnJyxwc
This is an interview with Patrick Medley, Consumer Products Leader, IBM Global Business Services. Medley points out that Proctor and Gamble’s (an iconic leader in innovation) 60% of the work of innovation is done by external sources, e.g., the University of Cincinnati). They also reach out to people who used to work for the company. Many organizations listen to chats on social media. The sources of innovation have really exploded over the last few years. The discussant asked, “Aren’t you worried about pursuing leads from people who don’t work for the company, who don’t know its culture, and wind up running into a lot of dead ends?” Medley responds: “Only one out of ten new product introductions actually succeeds.” He goes on to say that product launches are very expensive, and that therefore, knowing what the public wants in advance can spare much unnecessary expense, which is incurred when a company just relies on internally generated ideas. Every company is looking for the next blockbuster, and it is better to use a wider array of sources than what is available internally. He mentions that there are multiple ways of getting a message across. Old Spice resuscitated itself by asking, “What approach would appeal to the consumer?”
The consumer today is very different from the consumer of ten years ago. Now consumers are looking for a fair value: Does the product give me what I want at a fair price? And there seems to be a shift going on towards the “high end.” “I may not really need this, but I want it.” (It looks like the “Next Economy,” based on commoditization [Etterberg, 2002] has been replaced by a consumer orientation more like the economy that preceded it.) The key innovations of the future are the smart phone and the cloud. In twenty years there will be so much out there on the cloud that we won’t need our own spread sheets.
*Seven Sources of Innovation
http://startupwithme.wordpress.com/2010/10/11/seven-sources-of-innovation/
Another cut on the same subject; short, readable, and useful.
*Peter Drucker and Innovation
http://www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/wholefarm/pdf/c5-10.pdf
Another cut at the seven sources, plus a summary of the five principles of implementing innovations.
*Innovation Management (the link is embedded in the title below)
The best part of this presentation is in slides 22 forward, where the notion of “complementary assets” is introduced and then worked into Porter’s theory of competitive advantage, specifically with his concept of barriers to entry.
*How IKEA Became a Global Brand
http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2005-11-13/ikea
Ikea’s branding strategy—Newsweek article.
*Video: Creating an Innovation Mindset
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sNzkmZdM4A4&feature=plcp
This video consists of an HBR interview with Vijay Govinderajan (of the Amos Tuck Business School at Dartmouth) who just co-authored a book about the Ten Rules execs need to know in order to lead innovation processes. The moderator asks, “What are two things that you think every leader must do to facilitate ongoing innovation?” Govinderajan replies, “The first thing is to realize that the world is changing. Therefore, they can’t simply re-engineer their current business. So the first thing they need to do is to understand what the things are that are changing around them, in terms of customers, technologies, competition, demographic shifts, etc. The other thing is that this isn’t just a technical problem, it is an organizational mindset issue. They need to think about how they will need to change the organizational mindset in order to bring about innovative change.” The moderator then asks, “So how do you change the mindset of an organization? Is it a cultural change, do you need to put new systems in place. . .?” Govinderajan replies, “Since ‘mindset’ really involves people, you need to inject new blood into the organization.” In a big company, this can mean bringing people in from other units, which may be involved in whole other lines of business. In companies which don’t have this option, they must bring in outsiders. The moderator then asks, “What about unleashing existing voices from within the organization?” Govinderajan says, “I don’t think we should view this as ‘either/or.’” He goes on to say that if there are mavericks inside the organization, they should be treated with the same respect as outsiders. The moderator then asks, “What do you do when people within the organization resist change?” Govinderajan replies, “If you want people to perform differently, you must change the performance measurement system. . .” After defining innovation as “the commercialization of creativity,” he says that innovation, which involves groups of people, requires collaboration. The third response is to create a “tolerance-of-failure culture.”
When asked for his favorite innovations, he mentioned Google and iPod, but added the $3000 Taurus being made and sold in India. He points out that emerging markets—India and China—are huge, with 2.5 billion people. The focus will be on low cost markets. These innovations will create disruptions in the West.
In the last item, the intent is “market” leadership. There is a great summary of “do’s” and “don’ts” that is very worth reading.
*Principles of Innovation
A Power Point presentation which summarizes and to some degree explicates Drucker’s theory of innovation. This is worth reading, too.
**Five Principles of Innovation
http://www.digitaltonto.com/2011/5-principles-of-innovation/
This is another useful summary of Drucker’s 5 Principles, though with the argot of Clayton Christensen, author of The Innovator’s Dilemma, (1997).
DRU 502: Innovation and Entrepreneurship Lesson 3
Intrapreneurship vs. Entrepreneurship, the Dangers of Innovation, and Drucker’s 5 Principles of Systematic Entrepreneurship
J. Richard Johnson, PhD
• “Intrapreneurship” versus “Entrepreneurship”
• The Dangers of Innovation: Why It’s Hard for Large Organizations to Innovate
• But if they do want to innovate, how should they proceed?
• Big organizations have disadvantages that entrepreneurs can exploit
• Big organizations can avoid being “invaded from below” by using Drucker’s 5 Principles of Systematic Entrepreurship.
Objectives of this Presentation
Intrapreneurs and Entrepreneurs
• “Intrapreneur” came into popular use during the 1980s.
• By 1992, it was common enough to show up in the American Heritage Dictionary. Here is the definition:
“A person within a large corporation who takes direct responsibility for turning an idea into a profitable finished product through assertive risk-taking and innovation"
Intrapreneurs and Entrepreneurs
• As you can might suspect, “intrapreneurs” differ from “entrepreneurs” in that they work for someone else, whereas entrepreneurs work for themselves.
• Entrepreneurs personally bear the risks of enterprise
• Intrapreneurs do not—their efforts are paid for by someone else
• That does not mean, however, that they do not bear other kinds of risk…
The Dangers of Innovation
• Consider the matrix of possible outcomes for an innovation and for the innovator shown below:
Consequences for Innovation
Consequences for
Innovator
+ + + –
– + – –
+ –
+
– Healthy Organization
Bureaucracy
The Dangers of Innovation
Some things to consider:
• When the innovator is an insider, i.e., an intrapreneur, what are his or her objectives?
• Why will insiders who aren’t part of the intrapreneurial team often resist innovation?*
The Dangers of Innovation
Anatomy of a Box 3 Scenario—Type I:
• Line managers “don’t understand” the proposal
• Innovator goes back to the drawing board, reconfigures presentation, then presents again
• Process iterates
• One day, the innovator comes back and the line says, “We’re already doing it”*
Why might the outcomes in the first and fourth bullets be damaging to the innovator?
The Dangers of Innovation
Anatomy of a Box 3 Scenario—Type II:
• The line organization doesn’t reach the “we’re already doing it” stage, instead the plug is pulled on the project by a higher up.
• The innovator is given another assignment.
• Six months later a “hot shot” with “pull” at the officer level comes in and revives the innovation.
• Some “i”s are dotted, some “t”s are crossed, and the presentation is re- published—with the “hot shot’s” name on the front page.
The Dangers of Innovation
Here is a revealing quote from Robert Jackall, who conducted a deep study of the “moral mazes” of corporate life:
“Credit flows up in this structure and is usually appropriated by the highest ranking officer involved in a successful decision or resolution of a problem…[A]uthority provides a license to steal ideas, even in front of those who originated them…Not to balk at so being used is one attribute of the good team player” (Jackall 1988 21; my italics).
And the surest way to wind up in a Box 3 Scenario is to claim credit, as opposed to being granted credit, by the “highest ranking officer.”*
Why It’s Hard for Big Organizations to Innovate
• Internal politics of “credit”
• Snarled in methods and procedures
• Consequences:
• People avoid standing out from the “rest”; reduction of diversity of perspectives
• People who are victims of “Box 3 Scenarios” stop contributing
• Big organizations have the advantage of economies of scale
• …But in time, when they pass their “primes,” their bigness becomes an impediment
Consequences
Summing all this up, Joseph Schumpeter, the great economist, wrote:
“The bureaucratic method of transacting business and the moral atmosphere it spreads doubtless often exert a depressing influence on the most active minds. Mainly, this is due to the difficulty, inherent in the bureaucratic machine, of reconciling individual initiative with the mechanics of its working. Often the machine gives little scope for initiative, and much scope for vicious attempts at smothering it. From this a sense of frustration and futility may result which in turn induces a habit of thought that revels in blighting criticism of the efforts of others.” (Schumpeter 1950 [1942] 207).
Consequences
• It is possible for large organizations to systematically innovate, as Drucker, and subsequently Christensen argued.
• But to do this, much investment in organizational capability is required.
• The challenges of bureaucratic careerism and self-protectionism must be addressed through company principles that foster open dialogue, make failures into “learning opportunities,” and teamwork (“Box 2” Scenarios).*
• If top management does not actively and consistently support these principles, bureaucratic careerism will be the dominant force.
• In time, the company will be vulnerable to “disruptive innovations” from new competitors, who may enter the market “from below.”
Consequences
But if these conditions are met, a large organization could follow Drucker’s 5 Principles of systematic innovation
So, supposing that an innovative idea were generated from one or another of the 7 Sources of Innovation, the next steps would be…
Consequences
The 5 Principles of Systematic Entrepreneurship:
• Begin with an analysis of the opportunity
• See if people will be interested in using the innovation
• Make it simple, and focused on a specific need (presumably identified in the second bullet)
• Start small and be parsimonious; refine as you gain market experience
• Aim at market leadership (Why? Consider this…)
End of Lesson 3
References
Christensen, Clayton M. (1997). The innovator’s dilemma. Boston: Harvard Business School Press
Drucker, Peter F. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, Inc.
Jackall, Robert. (1988). Moral mazes: The world of corporate managers. New York: Oxford University Press
Schumpeter, Joseph A. (1950 [1942]). Capitalism, socialism, and democracy. New York: Harper Torchbooks
