Research Project

Create a research proposal, an annotated bibliography, complete the research paper.

The topic is on incarceration- What types of crimes have the highest recidivism rates and why and what are the causes of recidivism

Detailed information is included in the PDF.

Research Proposal

What is a Research Proposal? • A research proposal is a detailed plan or ‘blueprint’ for the intended

study

• Research proposal forms the backbone for the research and is the most important step in the process of conducting research

• Research Proposal describe planned activities and include a time line

• Research Proposal describes what you intend to accomplish and how

Elements of a Research proposal

• Identify a research problem or research topic • Introduction • Problem and objectives • Literature Review • Research Methods and Design

• Subjects for Study – population and sampling • Research Instrument – surveys (questionnaire), interviews,

• Data Collection Methods • Data Analysis • References

Identify a research problem or research topic • A problem is something to solve or framed as a question that must be

answered

• You can identify a research problem by reading recent research to find a gap in what is currently known about it or identify community problems or through personal experiences.

• You might look for: • A phenomenon or research area that has not been thoroughly studied • A situation or relationship that is not well explained • A disturbing question that has not been resolved through research

Introduction • Introduction is termed as the need for the study.

• It introduces the idea and sets the scene for the research

• It drives the research

• The introduction should be designed to create interest in the reader about the topic and proposal.

• It should convey to the reader, what you want to do, what necessitates the study and your passion for the topic (Sandelowski & Barroso, 2003).

Problem and Objective

• What exactly do you want to study?

• Does the proposed study contribute to our general understanding of crime, criminal behavior, the criminal justice system or policy responses to crime?

• Specify Research problem or objective

• Indicate what you intend to achieve in the Research

Literature Review • Review what others have written about your research topic

• Literature review tells you what is already known and not known.

• Your literature search must be organized around the key concepts you wish to study

• You can access academic journals, reports by government agencies, institutional databases, libraries online

• Summarize each article in a paragraph, highlighting the details relevant to your research interest.

• Literature review should include supporting data, disagreements and analytical .

Theoretical Framework

• Discuss Criminological Theories that support your research. Those theories must be synthesized into your Research. Examples of Criminological Theories are Social learning theory, Strain theory, Conflict theory, etc

• If you have not taken the Criminology and Theories of Crime class, you can google theories that support your topic.

Research Questions

• What specific questions will your research try to answer?

• It’s useful to view research questions as a more specific version of the problem or objective described earlier

• Your specific questions should be framed so as to address the research objective

• Your study’s research question/questions is not the same as your survey questions

Hypothesis • You only need to state Hypothesis if you are going to conduct a hypothesis

testing, in that case a quantitative analysis.

• A hypothesis is a specific, clear, and testable proposition or predictive statement or possible outcome of a scientific research that must be tested

• Two types of Hypothesis – • Null Hypothesis is the starting point of your measurement and represents

equality eg there is no difference between variable A and variable B • Research Hypothesis represents inequality eg. there is a difference b/w

two variables or there is a relationship between rehabilitation and recidivism

Research Methods and Design • Subjects for Study – population and sampling

• Whom or what will you study in order to collect data?

• Identify who are available for study and how you will reach them.

• Is it appropriate to select a sample? If so, how will you do that?

• If there is any possibility that your research will have an impact on those you study, how will you ensure that they are not harmed by the research?

• If you intend to interact with human subjects in the course of your research, you may have to include a consent form.

Measurement

• What are the key variables in your study?

• How will you define and measure or operationalize them?

Data Collection Method

• How will you actually collect the data for your study?

• Will you observe behavior directly or conduct a survey? Surveys are used to study attitudes, perceptions and opinions

• Will you undertake field research, or will you focus on reanalysis of data already collected by others?

• You may include more than one research method.

Data Analysis

• Briefly describe the kind of analysis you plan to conduct.

• Are you interested in precise description of your data?

• Do you intend to explain why things are the way they are?

• What possible explanatory variables will your analysis consider?

• Will you conduct qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis?

References

• Ensure to reference and include a list of all materials you consulted and cited in your proposal.

• Reference your materials according to APA format.

References

• Sandelowski M, Barroso J. (2003). Writing the proposal for a qualitative research methodology project. Quality Health Research. 13, 781–820.

Research Proposal Topic: What is a Research Proposal?

• A research proposal is a detailed plan or ‘blueprint’ for the intended study • Research proposal forms the backbone for the research and is the most important

step in the process of conducting research • Research Proposal describe planned activities and include a timeline • Research Proposal describes what you intend to accomplish and how

Elements of a Research proposal • Identify a research problem or research topic • Introduction • Problem and objectives • Literature Review • Theoretical Framework • Research Questions • Hypothesis • Research Methods and Design

• Measurement • Subjects for Study – population and sampling • Research Instrument – surveys (questionnaire), interviews,

• Data Collection Methods • Data Analysis • References

Annotated Bibliography You are required to work on your annotated bibliography which is a list of resources or literature you intend to review for the project. In this case, you would organize the list of literature, read the journal articles, books or other documents relevant to your topic, provide brief analytical summary of each. Your annotated bibliography must contain at least 20 annotated Literature (journal articles and/or books). Annotated Bibliography: An annotated bibliography is a list of citations from books, journal articles, and documents that are relevant to your research topic. You can visit Databases to find academic materials for your research project. Each citation is annotated by writing a very brief (usually about 150-250 words) descriptive summary of the article in a paragraph. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance of the sources cited in relation to the research topic. Retrieved from https://guides.library.cornell.edu/annotatedbibliography. Writing Annotated bibliography before the actual Research paper helps students to easily develop their literature review and complete the Research project.

About the Research Project You are required to present a 25 pages double space (Font 12) research project. The project will be written in a journal article format and will report the results of a survey research, interviews, case studies (primary research) or secondary research (use of existing data) consistent with the knowledge gained throughout the criminal justice program or based on another related knowledge. Pick up any journal article written according to the APA style, and see the format that is used, that is, the different sections of the journal, the font, the space between lines, the reference system, etc. The project should follow the following structure, that is, every paper should contain the following 17 items: (1) A cover page which contains the title of the project and the name of the author as

specified at the end of these instructions. Cover page must be written according to the APA format. Each paper needs to have a title. Choose a topic that relates to Criminal justice issues. Example:

(2) A table of content (3) An abstract. An abstract is a succinct description of the whole research project. It includes a brief description of the purpose of the study, the methodology used (briefly describing the procedure, the population, the sampling, the instrumentation, the analysis), the key findings and the implications or recommendations. All this should be said in about 200 words (about one third to a half page). (4) An Introduction (1 – 1 & half pages) (what the researcher wants to investigate), the importance and relevance of the topic. Properly introduce your research, pointing out the need for the research and support its relevance with available data. Your research question should be related to the title. According to the title of your choice. There needs to be evidence in your Introduction that you read journal articles, books, or other websites etc that would help you to construct a good Introduction. This paper is purely based on Research. Read over, correct grammatical errors and repetitions. Your introduction should not be based exclusively on personal opinions. You are required to write an introduction that drives this research. As pointed out above, your introduction should not be completely based on personal opinions, more should be based on academic materials you read. You need to read journal articles, books and official websites/database that relate to your topic to help you construct a very good Introduction. I recommend that you also cite data to buttress the need for this study.

• Introduction is termed as the need for the study.

• It introduces the idea and sets the scene for the research

• It drives the research

(5) Purpose of the Study The purpose of your Research is a concise description of what the Researcher is trying to achieve. You need to summarize your intended accomplishments through this research.

Read developments in your area of research and find gaps in literature that needs to be addressed. Also discuss those gaps, pointing out the need for this study.

You are required to subtitle the “Purpose of the Study”. You are required to discuss your own Objective or purpose of conducting this study. Here are important features to consider here:

• Discuss exactly why you are conducting this study. • Discuss how your study would contribute to our general understanding of your

research interest. • Specify Research problem or objective • Indicate what you intend to achieve in the Research

(6) Literature Reviews (about 12 Pages) A complete literature review including criminological theories or theoretical frameworks that support your research topic: You should review various literature related to the topic to be investigated. In this case it is the literature related to your topic. It means that you have to go to the library, virtual library or go to the internet and read articles or books that have dealt with the topic you are investigating. The literature review helps you learn about what has been said by previous researchers on this topic, what were their findings, what were their successes or shortcomings (limitations), what new orientation they propose, so that you, as a junior researcher, can see what stone was left unturned, and you can fill that gap in your present or future study. Once you get a good idea or finding or discussion from those previous studies, you can include them in your study as an argument or counterargument in what you are doing. If you quote somebody or paraphrase someone else, you need to give a proper reference, that is, you have to give the credit where it belongs. Generally, every scholarly paper you read always starts with the literature review before going into the methodology and data analysis; this is a good model you must follow as you write your paper. We do this to avoid to re-invent the wheels: your work should lean on the work of others who have done similar research before you. Remember that a good literature review takes the shape of a reversed pyramid. That is, you start with a broad area, and you narrow it down to the point you like to focus your study on. What you would like to do here is to find the gaps or some of the good ideas that you can explore in your study to make it stand out. The gaps could be in the methodology, the sample, the sampling technique, the analysis or an aspect that the previous researcher completely overlooked. It is advisable to start with the most recent articles and to go backward in order to capture the most recent findings. For example, start with the articles written in 2021 & 2020 and move back to those of 2019, 2018, then 2017, then 2016, etc. You may easily have about 10 or 12 pages here as this is one of the most critical parts of this research project, it is one that will take you more time to complete. YOU MUST PROPERLY IN-TEXT CITE AND REFERENCE according to APA format to avoid plagiarism. Paragraphing: You need to develop your Literature reviews in paragraphs for clarity. Each article you are reviewing must start on a new paragraph. Your paragraphs must be understandable and coherent. Each paragraph should be about half a page, with sentences related to the main idea.

In-text Citations: Also avoid in-text citing of publications’ URL, rather cite author’s last name and year of publication. Cite more of peer reviewed journal articles, books, government websites, and institution’s database etc. (7) Theoretical Framework You need to include Theoretical Framework that is composed of Criminological or Criminal Justice Theories. Your Theoretical Framework must be subtitled and discussed substantially. Your Criminological Theories must not be kept hanging, it must be connected to your research objective. I advise, you limit your theories to about 2 or 3 (but not less than 2) and these theories must strongly support your research. Examples of criminological theories are Social Learning Theory, Strain Theory, Critical Race Theory, Biological Theory, Rational Choice Theory, Classical Theory, Deterrence Theory, Conflict Theory, Social Disorganization Theory etc. (8). Research Question/s: You need to include your main Research Questions at the end of your Literature Reviews and sub-title it “Research Questions”. Here are some important features of the “Research Questions” –

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• What specific questions will your research try to answer?

• It’s useful to view research questions as a more specific version of the problem or objective described earlier

• Your specific questions should be framed so as to address the research objective

• Your study’s main research question/questions is not the same as your survey questions but your main Research question/s sets the scene for your survey questions. Research question/s drives your survey questions.

Using the title above, what you want to see is what the students at your local college or university think (their perception) about the level of safety on their campus. In other words, do the students feel safe or unsafe? How do they feel about the level (number) of crimes on that campus? Are there adequate protective measures to ensure student safety on that campus? Who have the most fear of crime, females or males, freshmen, or seniors? What else could be done to provide more safety to the students, etc… (9) Hypotheses (if needed): after you have reviewed the literature you should state your hypotheses in relation with your research question. This is nothing else than what you would like to test (evaluate) with the data that you collect. This is a statement of a relationship between two or more variables to be tested. The data will allow you to reject or retain the hypothesis. You may have one, two, three or more hypotheses, depending upon your interest and your data. Having one or two may be more manageable for this kind of time sensitive exercise. For example: Female students at Norfolk State University feel safer on their campus than the male students. Or Male students at the local university are less concerned about safety on campus than female students, etc… Note: Skip this section if you are not testing any hypothesis. Once you state your hypothesis, you are required to test it.

(10) Research Method and Design – Explaining the population under investigation, the sampling method and procedure of data collection, the instrument used. This is an area where the researcher is the more creative. Are you going to use experimental designs or other types of data gathering strategies (survey, interview, case study, participant observation…)? For this project, you may conduct a survey (questionnaire, interviews – structure or unstructured, etc). In your Research Method class course, you learnt about how to design a good questionnaire, the wording, the timing, the relationship between your question items and the variables to be analyzed in the study. Your questionnaire should not be unnecessarily long with questions that you will never use, or extremely short to leave out some important questions. Always ask yourself why you ask a particular question and how you will use it in your study. Sampling: Choose a sample wisely, that is, a sample that is appropriate for the types of data you want. Next is the question of how the sample is selected. Statisticians would recommend a random sample. If you use one like this, explain what sampling procedure you used (the Research Method book gives you different sampling techniques/designs); if you did not, justify why the departure from randomness and how it will affect the generalizability of your findings. This is often one of the concerns reported in the limitations of the study. What you do here is to provide the reader with enough information for him or her to replicate whatever you have done; that is why, in writing this section, you should provide enough details. You may select non- probability sampling design like Purposive sampling, Snowball sampling, Convenience sampling etc. (11) A statement of compliance (this section is not required, DO NOT INCLUDE THIS SECTION IN YOUR RESEARCH) with the regulation on the protection of human subjects. In chapter 2 we learned about how human subjects have been abused in research, and the precautions that are to be taken when one is engaged in research involving human subjects. If you think that your investigation will cause some harm or embarrassment, discomfort to the respondent, then you need to seek the consent for their voluntary participation, and you must submit a protocol to the Institutional Review Board (IRB). In the present case we do not have enough time to go through this IRB process, therefore, make your questions more general so that they do not touch the areas that are sensitive to individual subjects. (12) Data Collection – Describe the details of the data you collected for your study. You are required to discuss in detail how you collected your data. You are basically giving details of the data collection processes and procedures in your own words and sometimes quoting from the Interviewees, but those quotes must be in “quote”. Discuss the number of questions you used to conduct the research. Discuss what the structure of questions are aimed at, if closed-ended or open-ended, or both, if interview (if you conducted interview) like structured, semi-structured or unstructured interviews were used to guide interviewees during the conversations. Discuss your behavior and participants during the interview. If Surveys, discuss if you included yes/no or likert scale questions like (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) which helps to explore participants’ perceptions and opinions. Discuss why you chose open-ended or

close-ended questions. Which may allow interviewees or participants to share their experiences. Discuss more on this …. If you used secondary data, discuss how you collected the secondary data including databases and websites that you visited to collect your data. Also discuss your steps in collecting your data. Also discuss the type of data that was collected such as participants’ responses, direct observations, pictures etc. You can also describe the interview environment if one on one interview. Also discuss how you collected the data eg notetaking, audio or video recording etc. Also discuss potential risks Discuss about the Informed consent. For instance, the participants were expected to sign consent forms showing that they were willfully participating in the study. Discuss more on this… (13) Data Analyses Procedure and Data Analyses: Describe how your data will be input (it goes even to describe what software you will use –SPSS or Excel or others) and analyzed: what statistical procedure will be used. Normally, in this section, you tell the reader what procedure you used for Quantitative study (frequency tables, percentages, t- test, regression, correlation, ANOVA, etc), and why it is the appropriate procedure. You may employ basic descriptive statistics, and or inferential statistics such as frequency tables, crosstabs, histogram, charts/graphs, measures of central tendency, means comparisons, contingency tables, percentages, t-test, regression, correlation, ANOVA, or the likes whatever you can afford thru Excel or SPSS. If you conduct Qualitative Research like Interviews or Case Studies, you are also required to analyze your data using Qualitative approaches like Narrative Analysis, Thematic Analysis, and Discourse Analysis etc. Read more on this. Data analysis is not about copying and pasting your Interview responses. You need to analyze those responses based on the objectives of your research. You need to analyze all the important aspects of your surveys and Interviews based on themes you come up with. First, read about how to analyze survey and interview data. If your topic is on Police Brutality and Misconduct. You are required to analyze and discuss the responses from your participants. If you conducted Interviews, Analyze your interview data according to Themes. Be Very Clear on your Analysis. Read about Thematic Analysis. Thematic Analysis: You need to identify Themes from the responses. And analyze accordingly. You can create tables for this and analyze the contents of the table. (14) Discussion: Here is where you explain the result you obtained, whether they are significant in relation with your hypotheses – whether or not your hypotheses are supported or rejected or in relation to your Research questions. The analogy is that of a spin doctor, who tries to give his or her interpretation of the findings. You will show here if your findings confirm or not the findings by others that you reviewed in the literature. You can use sources from your literature review section or some outside sources to support your arguments.

(15). Conclusion: Discuss your conclusion. (16) Limitations, Policy Implications/Recommendations. Talk about the implications of your findings, and the limitations (problems you encountered during your research) of your study – these could be due to your sampling, lack of time or resources, your data or your analysis. This can be your sampling designs, increasing the sample size, diversifying the sample, trying the study with a different population, using different data analysis technique, time constraints etc. Finally, what do you recommend that society should do, or future researchers should do in the light of your findings? (17) Reference Page – Properly reference your sources according to APA format. All referenced materials must be in-text cited. Reference according to APA format. Just remember that the American Psychological Association (APA) style is required for writing all papers in criminal justice and criminology. It is important for you to review the manual to see how the other sections of the research paper are presented You could obtain a copy of the Publication Manual for the American Psychological Association, (6th edition or the 7th edition) or review its content as needed in the library. You are required to submit in the attachment after your References, also the survey or interview questionnaire that you have used in your study. About the American Psychological Association (APA) style There are many styles used to refer; the biomedical style, the sociological style, the American Psychological Association (APA) style, just to name a few. The Department of Criminal Justice has adopted the APA style in all their written works. We all, students, and teachers, need to know how to use it. And take it from me: I am not inventing it or making it unnecessarily burdensome (or being too picky or meticulous about it); it is a guide by which we all must abide. There is only one correct way to do it, not two; just follow the manual carefully as it explains, and gives example for, each case. To get acquainted to the process, you need to read a couple of well-written scholarly papers and see how the literature review section is presented and have an idea of how many sources have been cited. I do not expect you to cite as many, but your literature reference should include all the sources used and cited in your paper. Each time a source is cited in the body of the report, there must be a reference item on it in the reference page. Remember: no name or source shall be in the reference page that was not cited in the body of the report, as much as no name or source shall be in the body of the report that is not listed in the reference page. The APA style recommends that you cite the last name of the author(s) in the body of the report plus the year of the publication on the side of the citation, and the complete reference in the reference page in the back of the report. It should include the last name, the first and middle initials, the year of the publication, the title of the article, the journal title, the volume, the issue number, and the pages. For a book, the reference should include the last name, the first and middle

initials, the year of the publication, the title of the book, the publisher, the place of publication, the edition number, the page, etc. To know all the details, you must read the relevant pages of the APA manual, the 7th edition. It is this last edition that we all must follow. Don’t go back to the previous editions as things keep changing from one edition to the next. The latest edition always overrides the previous ones. Please take time to read the relevant pages: this is not a waste of time. Many students do not take time to learn those details and end up with a substandard job. When you present your paper, the strict respect of the APA style is the first thing I pay attention to. I know this is a tedious job but one that you all must become familiar with; there is no other way around. Take that pain now; it will make your work much easier later. Practical Concerns and General Remarks about the Paper Submission. 1. Have a cover page according to APA format which includes:

Title of the Assignment: Research Project Topic: Title of the Project Submitted by: Your name

To: Name of your Instructor Course Name and Number:

Term Institution Name

2. Check the spelling, punctuation, and grammar. All that is part of this exercise. Do not neglect it; I grade your paper on all of that. Good research presented in a poorly written style is not appealing. A good way to check that your writing is acceptable, is to give it to another person (spouse, peer, friend or else) to read before you turn it in.

Good Luck!

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth Edition

Chapter 1

Theoretical Criminology: An Introductory Overview

Introduction

• Crime is a reality of modern life

• Criminal Justice is concerned with the actual practice of law enforcement

• Criminology is focused on the process of making and breaking laws

Origins and Evolution of Criminology

• Attention to crime can be traced back to Babylon and the Code of Hammurabi

• Family-revenge model of justice

• Hobbes’ social contract

• Social contract involves sacrifice of personal freedom in exchange for governmental protection

Classical School of Criminology

• Exemplified by the writings of Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham

• Grounded in the concept of deterrence and places emphasis on free will

• Focused on dimensions of punishment (certainty, severity, and celerity)

Significant Aspects

• Two important developments in regard to criminological thought 1. Crime was no longer thought to be a product of

religion, superstition or myth 2. Crime was seen as a result of free will

Positivism

• Emerged in Europe during the 19th century

• Emphasized the application of the scientific method

• Stressed the identification of patterns and consistencies in observable facts

Determinism

• Takes the position that human behavior is caused by factors specific to the individual

• These factors include biological, psychological and environmental issues

• Lombroso is the most notable figure associated with determinism

The Chicago School

• Helped positivism replace the classical approach to crime during the 1920s

• Conducted a series of studies that demonstrated that crime is a product of social ecology, specifically the disorganization of urban life

Nature of Theory

• What exactly is theory?

• Theory is a part of everyday life and an attempt to make sense and order out of otherwise unexplainable events

• Observable phenomena are specified as either a cause or effect and positioned in a relationship statement

Cause and Effects (1 of 2)

• Are termed variables

• These statements are presented as hypotheses and are formed to explain/predict how one factor or multiple factors relate to the phenomena being explored

Cause and Effects (2 of 2)

• These relationships form specific theories of crime

• Are developed according to the logic of variable analysis

• Analytic strategy specifies causal elements as independent and dependent variables

Variables

• In criminology, crime is the foremost dependent variable (dv)

• Variable analysis process seeks to account for variation in crime

• When crime is the dv, further scrutiny reveals that theorists are referring to criminality or the crime rate

Criminality versus the Crime Rate

• Criminality denotes the extent/frequency of offending by a societal group

• Crime Rate denotes level of crime in a specific locale (i.e. Phoenix)

Correlation

• Speaks to the covariance of variables

• The direction and strength in fluctuation of the dv(s)

• Directional correlation refers to either a positive or negative relationship

Operationalization

• In order to analyze theoretical propositions, independent and dependent variables are re-specified

• Variables move from a categorical/conceptual level to a measurable level (this process is known as operationalization)

Determination of Causation (1 of 2)

• The strength/direction of correlations serve the objective of determining causation

• Causation is whether an independent variable prompts change in a dependent variable, and if so, in what manner

Determination of Causation (2 of 2)

• To have confidence in observed causal relationships, there must be specificity and accuracy in the measurement process

• Researchers refer to this as operationalization!

Assessing Theory (1 of 2)

• What makes a theory scientific?

• Characterizing theory as scientific means that inferential claims about relationships must be falsified

Assessing Theory (2 of 2)

• Research entails gathering data according to the operationalization process so that theory is framed systematically for cause and effect

• If observations are inconsistent with premise, theory is falsified

• Observations that are consistent are more credible, but not necessarily true

Elements of Causation

• Causation in the context of scientific theory requires 4 main elements

– Logical Bias – Temporal Ordering – Correlation – Lack of Spuriousness

Influence of Social Perspectives on Theories of Crime

• Criminological theories discuss crime at different levels of social realities/interactions

• Micro-Level Theory focuses on individual and small group behavior

• Macro-Level Theory looks to the structural properties of society (social inequality, culture, demographics, etc.)

Perspectives of Social Life and the development of Theory

• Three perspectives of social life contribute to the creation of crime and deviance theories 1. Functionalism 2. Social Conflict 3. Symbolic Interactionism

Why Theory Matters

• Theory is vital to criminology for several reasons: 1. Provides a scientific orientation to the phenomena of

crime 2. It grounds styles of inquiry systematically 3. Helps identify cause and effect relationships

Evidence-Based Practice (1 of 2)

• Evidence-based practice has emerged in recent years and signals a systematic betterment of practice through research knowledge

Evidence-Based Practice (2 of 2)

• For a program to be considered evidence-based, three criteria must be met: 1. Previous implementation/delivery 2. Scientific Evaluation Finding Effectiveness 3. Successful Replication

Theory and Policy

• A direct connection exists between theory and policy

• Theoretically-based research often sheds light on a better way of doing things

• Typically, justice system practices and programs are shaped by the logic of theory

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth Edition

Chapter 2

Classical and Neoclassical Criminology

The Classical School

• Classical Theory is one of the oldest explanations of crime

• Derived from the ideas and writing of early Greek philosophy

• Formally originated in the 18th century

Classical Theory of Criminology

• Began in 1764 with ‘Of Crime and Punishments’ by Cesare Beccaria

• This book drew from the concepts of the enlightenment movement in Europe

• Theory focused on social harm prevention as opposed to moral retribution of law

Deterrence

• Beccaria looked at deterrence as the central purpose of criminal justice

• The prevalence of crime in society was thought to reflect irrational and ineffective law

• Legal reform implementing a more fair and rational justice system, which would deter people from crime, was thought to be the answer to the crime problem

Fundamental Assumptions

• Beccaria’s perspective is rooted in several fundamental assumptions 1. People are generally good but need negative

motivation 2. Behavior is calculated 3. Crime control is an attainable goal

Bentham

• Another well known figure in the development of the classical perspective

• Developed the principle of utility based on the assumption that people pursue pleasure and avoid pain

• Individuals calculate pleasure or pain according to intensity, duration, certainty and extent

Classical Criminology Assumptions

• Several assumptions underlie classical criminology 1. People have free will 2. People exhibit hedonism 3. People have rationality

Deterrence Theory

• Martinson (1974) questioned the viability of positivist explanations of criminality

• He also suggested that the idea behind deterrence should be reconsidered

• This questioning included a postmodern rejection of causal determinism

How Deterrence Works

• To understand deterrence one must accept basic classical ideas about human nature

• Much of the problem with crime is that it “feels good”

• Crime must be controlled by negative means

Deterrence Effectiveness (1 of 2)

• Beccaria argues that the effectiveness of deterrence will depend on three characteristics related to punishment administration 1. Certainty 2. Celerity (speed of punishment) 3. Severity (painfulness of outcome)

Deterrence Effectiveness (2 of 2)

• Of the three characteristics, maximizing swiftness and certainness is more important for deterrence than severity

• If severity is disproportionate, irrationality brutality may occur and the effect on crime will be counterproductive

Relativity

• A less extreme problem with severity has to do with relativity

• Deterrence functions through criminal law, which makes assumptions about which crimes are to be punished more severely

• Sentencing is based on severity and not on characteristics of the crime

Limitations of Deterrence (1 of 2)

• Cost-benefit conceptualization of deterrence theory is known as the economic model or objective deterrence

• Cost/benefit calculations are based on a number of factors

• At times some offenders do not engage in rational decision making

Limitations of Deterrence (2 of 2)

• Deterrence theory assumptions are often faulty in practice

• The diverse stratified and pluralistic nature of our society make deterrence less than straightforward

• Different socioeconomic groups might opt out of different crimes due to cost/benefits

Variability of Severity

• Variability of true severity has an intangible element

• EG: Approval of peer groups and concepts such as direct and indirect punishments affect deterrence

Boundedness of Decision Making (1 of 2)

• Scholars recrafted deterrence to include the role of variability and perception in individual decision making

• This is known as bounded choice/perceptual deterrence theory

• Decisions to engage in criminal behavior are influenced by an individual’s perception of punishment

Boundedness of Decision Making (2 of 2)

• Deterrence occurs when perceptions of likely punishment cause would be offenders to refrain from committing criminal acts (despite motivation and willingness)

• Modern analysis of deterrence has divided deterrence into two specific types (specific and general)

Specific Deterrence

• Offender is inhibited from repeating criminal behavior by unpleasant experiences

• Involves the direct experience of punishment

General Deterrence

• Punishing other offenders has an effect on would be offenders

• Involves the indirect or vicarious experience of punishment through seeing others receive unpleasant outcomes for their actions

Research on Deterrence Theories

• As a theory, the validity of deterrence as a scientific explanation depends on the ability to conduct empirical research and testing hypotheses

• Research to study deterrence is typically very difficult to accomplish

Difficulties (1 of 2)

• Part of the difficulty with deterrence theory is determining fully measurable concepts and fully specified/testable hypotheses

• Fundamental difficulty is that deterrence is not observable, it can only be inferred from observable events

Difficulties (2 of 2)

• As deterrence cannot be “seen” the majority of research has been conducted on the failures of deterrence

• Observing people committing crime is a failure of deterrence

• We do not really observe people not committing crime

Methods to Determine Validity of Deterrence Theory

1. Anecdotal Studies

2. Crime Rate Analysis

3. Natural/Field Experiments

4. Self-Report Surveys

Appeal of Deterrence (1 of 2)

• Overall, the appeal of the theory is not entirely based on scientific progress

• Theory is more ideological than utilitarian

• Agrees with the values we hold about human nature, law and morality

Appeal of Deterrence (2 of 2)

• Classical theory works, “well enough,” re: empirical research and policy evaluations

• Does not work better than most positivist theoretical competitors

• The variability of criminal punishments will always limit this theory

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth Edition

Chapter 3

Biosocial Theories of Crime

Introduction

• Explaining how and why some people become criminal can be a challenging endeavor

• Biosocial theories of crime focus on identifying and understanding unique qualities or characteristics of individuals and show how the presence or absence of some chemical hormone or physical structure is related to criminal activity

Biosocial Criminology

• 4 factors play a role in shaping a person’s behavior 1. Biological Factors such as hormone levels 2. Genetic Factors 3. The brain 4. The environment

Positivist School of Thought

• The foundation for biosocial theories comes from positivism

• Positivism is an approach to the study of human behavior that seeks to identify the underlying causes of that behavior using the principles and tools of the scientific method

Positivist Thinking in Biological Criminology

• Based on three core assumptions 1. All people are biologically unique and different from

all other people 2. Differences in individual makeup account for

differences in individual behavior 3. Criminal behavior is a result of different constructions

and characteristics of individuals

Early Biological Research (1 of 3)

• Early biosocial research identified different characteristics of criminals’ faces and heads

• Phrenology or the idea that different parts of the brain controlled different types of activities and thinking was also important

Early Biological Research (2 of 3)

• Some of the core characteristics discussed by Lombroso involving atavism include: 1. Large Forehead 2. Protruding lips 3. Large Jaw 4. Long Arms

Early Biological Research (3 of 3)

• Some of the core characteristics discussed by Lombroso involving atavism include: 5. Pouchlike Cheeks 6. Eyes or Ears that stand out from the head

• Reference work of Ferri and Garafalo

Early Biological Theories

• Probably the most well known was Lombroso and his ideas of atavism

• Criminals were thought to be “throwbacks,” to a lower form of human beings

• Certain physical characteristics were thought to relate to criminal activity

Contemporary Biosocial Theories

• Today’s biosocial theories as noted earlier focus on 4 factors and the roles each play in criminality

• These factors are biological, genetic, the brain, and the environment

Biological Factors (1 of 2)

• One of the more commonsense approaches that has developed to explain crime is a focus on hormones

• Research on men has focused on high levels of testosterone

• Estrogen levels in women have also been thought to be related to criminality

Biological Factors (2 of 2)

• Biological factors and their relationship to crime are affected by social influences

• Diet, nutritional intake, and diet during pregnancy are other important factors that relate to future criminality

• Much research remains to be done in this area

Genetic Factors: Behavior Genetics

• Theories that argue that an individual’s behavioral genetics are important for criminality emphasize that behavior is inherited and runs through families

• The central theory behind this is that genes play a role in crime, and are passed through families just like diseases

Genetic Factors and Criminality

• The impact of genetic factors on criminality can be studied in two different ways 1. Through behavior genetic analysis 2. Molecular genetic analysis

Molecular Genetics

• Behavioral genetic research has shown antisocial behavior to be heritable

• The bulk of evidence suggests that antisocial behavior such as aggression and criminality carry heritability coefficients of .5

• Different chromosomal patterns, such as XXY, have been shown to lead to increased involvement in crime

The Brain (1 of 2)

• How do hormones and genetics have an effect on behavior?

• The answer is that they effect the brain in the same way

• Chemicals known as neurotransmitters allow hormones and genetic factors to affect behavior

The Brain (2 of 2)

• One of the strongest links between brain development and criminality centers around alcohol, specifically prenatal exposure to alcohol

• Research has shown that pregnant women who drank as little as 3 times per week during pregnancy were more likely to have children with conduct disorders

The Environment (1 of 2)

• The final piece necessary to explain criminal behavior from a biosocial perspective is the environment

• Biosocial criminologists tend to view the environment in a different light than more traditional sociological explanations

The Environment (2 of 2)

• The role of the environment is not exclusive to biological functions like hormones

• Most genetic research points to the environment as being closely related to crime

• Environmental factors typically act in a complementary or moderating role

Policy Implications of Biosocial Criminology (1 of 3)

• Crime as an inherited trait has been commonly argued as part of several theories with some suggesting that it is deterministic inheritance

• Others suggest inheritance predisposes individuals to a greater likelihood of being criminal

Policy Implications of Biosocial Criminology (2 of 3)

• Biological influences like hormones and genes make crime more or less probable

• Many feel that by placing the blame on the environment for crime means that the blame is taken off the criminal

Policy Implications of Biosocial Criminology (3 of 3)

• The policy implications of biosocial criminology is that we need to identify what is wrong with genes, body, or brain and find a way to cure the problem

• Behavioral problems are typically multifaceted and stem from a combination of different influences

Conclusion (1 of 3)

• Biological explanations for crime and criminality have been around in multiple forms for several centuries

• Earlier biological theories differ from the more recent biological theories

Conclusion (2 of 3)

• Two ways in which older versions and recent versions differ

– Content of earlier theories was based on shape, size and distinguishing features of the body

– Early biological theories believed that certain traits defined a person as criminal

Conclusion (3 of 3)

• The deterministic view arose out of fairly simple logic and thinking, and today we recognize that there are many different characteristics of people, environments and other influences that prevent individuals from controlling their own behavior.

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth edition

Chapter 4

Psychological Theories of Crime

Introduction

• Concerns about psychological issues in our society are closely tied to concerns about criminality and violence

• Considering crime as a mental or psychological issue is logical

• A number of facts about known criminals exist that support psychological links to crime

Facts that relate Psychology to Crime

1. Typically prison inmates have lower than average Iqs

2. There are significantly high rates of mental illness among convicted criminals compared to the general population

3. Psychological explanations of crime support some of the most popular views and are reinforced by the media

Psychoanalytic Theory (1 of 2)

• A psychoanalytic perspective on crime offers explanations based on the ideas of Freudian psychology and its theory of personality

• People commit crime due to the three parts of their personality (id, ego, super ego) being in conflict with one another as a result of early life trauma/deprivation

Psychoanalytic Theory (2 of 2)

• One way in which psychoanalytic theory stands apart from most other theories is its assumption that people are born with antisocial predispositions

• Freudian psychology proposes that personality is comprised of 3 primary parts

Three Parts of Personality

1. ID: The part of the personality that represents the set of instincts and drives the need or demand for instant gratification

2. Superego: Represents opposite forces and serves as social consciousness or authority of a person

3. Ego: Attempts to balance the drives of the id and the superego

Crime in Psychoanalytic Perspective

1. People are not appropriately socialized, the id drives people to do as the please

2. People are oversocialized with the superego dominating their personality and establishing behavioral patterns

3. People who repress their guilt may eventually experience a breakthrough of repressed guilt/id and explode by acting out

Personality Theories

• A commonly held belief is that criminals just seem to think differently than other people

• A criminal personality refers to a conceptually broad term that describes the totality of an individual’s behavioral and emotional characteristics

Criminal Personality (1 of 2)

• Among the more influential personality approaches to explaining crime is the idea of a criminal personality

• Yochelson and Samenow are the primary theorists behind this approach and believe that criminal ways of thinking are something with which individuals are born with

Criminal Personality (2 of 2)

• This theory argues that the criminal personality is not a deterministic approach to crime but serves to predispose individuals to criminal behavior

• Criminal thought patterns are thought to be errors of criminal thinking and there are said to be 52 different criminal thinking errors

Lifestyle Perspective (1 of 3)

• A similar approach to the criminal personality is White and Walters (1989), lifestyle perspective

• Crime, in theory, arises from how individuals live their lives including the social environment they are in, the choices they make about their behaviors, and the thinking patterns they use to make choices in their everyday lives

Lifestyle Perspective (2 of 3)

• The lifestyle perspective is centered on thought processes, specifically the beliefs that the individual holds and uses to interpret and make sense of his or her environment and situations

Lifestyle Perspective (3 of 3)

• Belief systems are generated by four critical/inter-related factors 1. irresponsibility 2. self-indulgence 3. interpersonal intrusiveness 4. patterns of social rule breaking

Dual Systems Theory (1 of 2)

• A nascent line of research, dual systems theory, suggests that involvement in risky behavior must be understood as the outcome result of two neuropsychological systems within the body

Dual Systems Theory (2 of 2)

• Dual systems theory states that risky behavior results when sensation-seeking behavior is high or impulsivity levels are low

• Sensation-seeking behaviors are thought to originate in the parts of the brain that mature faster than the parts of the brain used to control and inhibit such behavior

Self-Control/Self-Regulation (1 of 2)

• A fourth version of personality theory highlights the relationship between self-control/self-regulation and criminal behavior

• This perspective is discussed more in Chapter 8

Self-Control/Self-Regulation (21 of 2)

• A long line of research suggests that a correlation exists between a person’s level of self-control and their offending behavior

Mental Capacity

• The argument that criminals have a mental illness is an often cited explanation for their behavior

• Mental illnesses are typically thought of as misdirected and error-ridden ways of thinking and perceiving the world

• Estimates suggest that between 20-60% of prison inmates have some form of mental illness

Mental Illness and Crime

• Two most common mental illnesses associated with crime are 1. Schizophrenia 2. Antisocial Personality Disorders

Schizophrenia

• Manifests itself in several different ways, varying in degree of severity

• People with schizophrenia are withdrawn and apathetic in their behavior and affect

• Has been linked to a variety of crimes including violent and property offenses

Antisocial Personality Disorder

• Is also referred to as psychopathy and sociopathy

• Individuals with this disorder experience a significant lack of development of moral order or ethics

• Individuals diagnosed with this disorder are likely to engage in a wide range of criminal behavior

Affective Disorders

• A growing portion of research indicates that additional mental disorders of the affective variety (i.e. depression) may be linked with crime and delinquency

• Research shows that juvenile delinquents are more likely than non- delinquents to suffer from substance use and affective disorders

Intelligence

• A long standing/popular belief about crime is that criminals have lower IQ scores than non-criminals

• Important topics to be aware in this area include:

• Mental Capacity and Eugenics

Developmental Life Course (DLC) (1 of 2)

• These types of theories emphasize that there are different issues at the core of why persons do, and then later do not engage in criminal behavior

• DLC theories look at behavioral trajectories over time for individuals and groups to explain how and why involvement in crime varies through an individual’s life

Developmental Life Course (DLC) (2 of 2)

• At its core, DLC criminology is concerned with 3 primary issues 1. Development of offending behavior 2. Identification of risk factors unique to individuals at

various ages 3. Effects of experienced events on how individual

offending behavior does/does not develop

Additional DLC Theories

• Catalano and Hawkins

• LeBlanc

• Thornberry and Krohn

• Sampson and Laub

• Moffitt

Conclusion

• Psychological theories for explaining crime and criminals are popular because they seem to make sense intrinsically and argue that criminals are distinct from the rest of society

• Proponents of these theories are optimistic about the possibility of addressing society’s crime problems

Psychosocial theories – assumptions

• Individuals are the units of analysis (study) • Theorists are searching for personalities or personality

traits that distinguish between criminals and non-criminals • Assumes that personality is the major motivational element • Crime results from abnormal, dysfunctional, or

inappropriate processes within the personality • Defective personality can result from a variety of causes

(biological, genetic, social) • Criminal behavior serves a purpose for the individual

committing the crime (relieves aggression, is physiologically reinforcing)

What we’ll look at today

• Psychopathic personalities

• The criminal mind

• Psychoanalytic approaches (mental illness)

• IQ and crime connection

Issues to think about

• If crime is explained by biological and/or psychological forces that are beyond one’s control. . . .can we then hold a person fully responsible for their behavior?

• Can we force treatment (execution competency)

• Can we reliably identify individuals who are likely to commit crime based on their personalities? What if we make a mistake?

Psychopathic personality (Anti-social personality)

• Harvey Cleckley (1941) – The Mask of Sanity • Hare “The Sociopaths Among Us” • Sociopaths or psychopaths are characterized by:

– Superficial charm and intelligence – Absence of delusions, hallucinations, or other signs of psychosis – Absence of nervousness – Unable to feel guilt or shame – Unreliable, chronic lying – Ongoing antisocial behavior (conduct disorder) – Inability to learn from experience – Narcissistic, unable to love – Failure to follow a life plan

Interesting findings • Prevalence: 6x more common in boys than girls; 6-16% in boys and

2-9% in girls – may be higher in samples of prisoners and substance users

• Hare estimates 15% – 20% of prisoners are psychopaths compared to 3-5% in general population

• Most agree there is a biological component: Impairment in prefrontal cortex, amygdala, no physical reaction to emotional things; genetic connection?

• We DO NOT know how to treat someone with sociopathy • Early predictors (markers) (Macdonald triad – Triad of sociopathy)

– Bed wetting – Firesetting – Cruelty to animals (practice at victim selection) – Not in all sociopaths!

The Criminal Mind

• Do you think criminals think differently than non-criminals (you and I)?

• How so?

• Can we identify them ahead of time based on these different thinking patterns?

• How do we change defective thought processes?

The Criminal Mind • Yochelson and Samenow (1976, 1977) • “Thought patterns” that describe all criminals (based on

interviews with offenders) and 52 “errors of criminal thinking” – Chronic lying – Other people’s property is their own – Unrelenting optimism – Great energy – Fear of injury – Intense anger – Manipulativeness – A high self-image – Treating this “personality” type? (approach used today in

corrections)

Psychoanalytic criminology • Developed from Freud’s work (ego, superego, and id) • Do criminals have higher levels of mental disorders of these

types than non-criminals? • Are people with mental disorders more likely to commit

crime than people without them? • Does mental illness CAUSE crime? • Neuroses – behavioral disorders characterized by anxiety

and fears or by overpowering drives to perform irrational activities (examples?)

• Psychoses – Two forms marked by grossly distorted conception of reality (hallucinations) – Affective disorders (depression, bipolar ) – Schizophrenia

IQ – Crime connection

• Delinquents usually have lower verbal intelligence (intellectual imbalance) (PIQ > VIQ)

• Does this mean that low IQ in and of itself causes crime? What might be some other explanations?

Contributions from these approaches?

How would you criticize this approach?

Contributions • Early ID becomes possible (threat assessment)

• Focus is now on rehabilitation (if it is possible)

• Psychological profiling techniques – assumes that behavior is symptomatic of underlying personality (bleaching a crime scene, taking away a “trophy”, staging a body, covering a body with a tarp, bringing a weapon to the scene)

• Doesn’t always work (Sniper case)

Criticisms • Hard to empirically measure and test • Comparison group? • Tautological and circular in nature (using criminality to

discover the defective personality and then using the personality to explain the criminality)

• Scope? Can this approach explain all crime? • Key problem – many offenders do not have underlying

psychological disorders – although media makes us think otherwise (although substance abuse may alter one’s personality) – folks with mental illness may be more prone to be crime victims NOT offenders

• Many offenders do not have antisocial personalities

Criticisms (continued)

• Does not take into account the important role of social, economic and political processes in the production of criminal behavior

• Fails to explain how a criminal career develops, peaks, and then wanes over time (desistance)

• Fails to explain geographic differences in crimes rates (between countries and regions)

• Fails to explain crime trends (waves over time)

Crime Control Measures/Policies • Rehabilitation instead of punishment

– Treat the underlying condition with meds – Can we “force medication”? Right to say NO? – Competency to be executed

• Prediction and risk assessment (early intervention) – problems?

• Incapacitate only those for whom treatment doesn’t work

• Use of insanity defense and other diminished capacity techniques (guilty but not mentally ill standard) – McNaughten rule (did not know the nature of the act and that it was

wrong) – Brawner rule (mental disease or defect results in inability to

appreciate criminality of conduct or to conform conduct to the requirements of the law)

– Today defendant typically must prove

Outstanding issues

• Is free will a myth? • Treatment not effective? How do we treat

sociopaths? Malingerers? • Is mental illness an “aggravating” factor or

“mitigating” factor? (CJP research) • Do offenders have a right to treatment just as

they have a right to punishment? • Can we force psychiatric treatment on

offenders? Liberty vs. individual interests

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth edition

Chapter 5

The Social Ecology of Crime

Social Disorganization Theory (1 of 2)

• Contains several assumptions that distinguish it from other perspectives discussed in the text

• Social disorganization attempts to explain why some communities have higher crime rates than others (not individually based)

Social Disorganization Theory (2 of 2)

• This theory assumes that social organization, schools, churches, businesses, etc., when functioning normally enable a community to deal with crime

• Crime is not due to defective people, but rather social organizations that have failed

Intellectual Origins

• During the early 1900s in Chicago, Park and Burgess began their work on social ecology

• Social ecology holds that people struggle for survival in a community of mutual dependence

Important Principles

• Two principles are of particular importance to Social Disorganization Theory 1. People compete for resources 2. People exist in a world of mutual dependence

Location of Crime (1 of 2)

• Shaw and McKay (1942), developed the connection between social disorganization and crime

• Looked at how crime was spread across Chicago in the 1930s and 1940s

• They found that crime was concentrated in slum areas, which tended to be located in the center of the city

Location of Crime (2 of 2)

• The pattern appeared to be consistent over time regardless of ethnic composition

• Based on this information, the question then became, why does place matter?

• The city of Chicago was divided into 5 zones that radiated out from the city’s center or core

Zones

• The Zones were as follows: 1. Inner City (Central Business District) 2. Transitional Zone (Area of high crime) 3. Working Class Zone 4. Residential Zone 5. Commuter Zone (Suburbs)

Zone II

• The most important zone to the theory is the transitional zone

• Homes in the area are older and of poorer condition

• People living in this zone have little tangible incentive to make their communities better

Social Disorganization and Causes

• Shaw and McKay concluded that Social Disorganization is endemic to Zone II

• The community in this area cannot function as its residents would desire

• They expend personal effort to improve the living conditions of this type of neighborhood that is against the common sense of individuals in this area

Conditions for Social Disorganization (1 of 2)

• According to Shaw and McKay, 3 factors create natural conditions for social disorganization 1. Residential Instability 2. Racial/Ethnic Heterogeneity 3. Poverty

Conditions for Social Disorganization (2 of 2)

• Each of the aforementioned signs of disorganization undermines the ability of residents to work in concert and prevent crime from occurring

Residential Instability

• Communities with a lot of residential turnover have high levels of crime

• Effective formal and informal community organizations require a relatively stable population

• People do not tend to form close ties with people they will only know for a short while

Racial/Ethnic Heterogeneity

• Shaw and McKay found that communities where many different ethnic groups live in close proximity have higher crime rates

• Communication was found to decrease under these conditions, which made the community less effective at being able to organize/control the neighborhood

Poverty

• Communities with high poverty tend to lack the resources needed for effective community organization

• Concentrated poverty weakens the tax base, which supports community institutions (schools)

• Residents are focused on personal survival and not other activities

Development of Social Disorganization Theory (1 of 4)

• After Shaw and McKay the theory languished for many years

• Other theories become more popular

• Crime was seen as a byproduct of culture and not explicitly the domain of poor communities

Development of Social Disorganization Theory (2 of 4)

• Disorganization also fell out of favor due to limitations with data

• Weakness of community networks (an important factor of disorganization) was hard to measure using typical community level data

Development of Social Disorganization Theory (3 of 4)

• The primary data that disorganization theorists were able to show were maps with dots denoting where crime was taking place

Development of Social Disorganization Theory (4 of 4)

• In 1974, Kasorda and Janowitz talked of communities with informal ties, which helped the theory come back into fashion

• Kornheiser (1978), attacked critiques and focused on informal social bonds

Revived Social Disorganization Theory (1 of 2)

• Work by Sampson et al. (1997), created the concept of Collective Efficacy

• Collective efficacy is the idea that residents band together to protect the best interests of their communities

Revived Social Disorganization Theory (2 of 2)

• Social Capital is related to collective efficacy and is based on the idea that informal networks within the community help prevent crime

Policy Implications (1 of 3)

• On one level, disorganization theory suggests straightforward policy

• Community organizations with informal control mechanisms need to be promoted

• HOAs and neighborhood watches are examples of these types of community organizations

Policy Implications (2 of 3)

• Shaw and McKay’s Chicago Area Project is an example of an early social program based on Social Disorganization Theory

• Project staff and social workers were used to help create and maintain community organizations

Policy Implications (3 of 3)

• An interesting finding from this study was that once financial support was cut back, these communities began to have more issues

Policy Implementation

• Why have these types of policies been so difficult to implement?

• Issues such as residential mobility, incarceration (which hurts communities) and improvements that ‘price out’ poor residents are some of the key issues here

Routine Activities Theory

• Based on the work of Hawley (1950) suggesting that there was a natural rhythm of human life

• Cohen and Felson (1979), three components were necessary for a crime to occur 1. Motivated Offender 2. Suitable Target 3. Lack of Proper Guardianship

Role of Social Changes

• Social Changes are often relevant for facilitating/impeding situations in which offenders are poorly defended/worthwhile targets

• Changes such as more women working (leaving homes unguarded during the day) have affected crime rates

Empirical Research/Criticisms

• A criticism of Routine Activities Theory is that it is difficult to test

• Many look at routine activities as a victim blaming theory and are thus highly critical of it

• Readers should be aware of the inherent ideology embedded within any type of theory

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth edition

Chapter 6

Learning and Cultural Transmission Theories of

Crime

Introduction

• Learning and cultural transmission theories generally assume that criminal behavior is similar to other forms of human behavior in certain respects

• Crime is viewed as a result of social interaction

• Criminal and noncriminal behaviors are learned through the socialization process

Learning Theories

• Learning theories contend that criminal behavior is learned from others

• The learning process involves the internalization of values, norms, and behaviors that vary across groups

• According to social learning theory, negative outcomes are related to life experiences

Differential Association Theory

• Created by Sutherland

• Emphasized the role of socialization in the development of human behavior and interaction

Socialization

• Refers to a process of human interaction on both one-on- one and group levels, wherein behavior is learned 1. From Others 2. Reflective of society’s cultural and subcultural values

• This perspective emphasizes two primary influences 1. Agents of Socialization (who does the socializing) 2. Content of Socialization

• Reference the 9 formal propositions of differential association in the text

Akers’ Social Learning Theory (1 of 2)

• A criticism of Differential Association Theory is that it failed to explain HOW people learn to commit crime

• Akers and Burgess revised the theory by incorporating reinforcement, punishment and observational learning into differential association

• The people with whom we spend the majority of our time with shape our reality

• Definitions (part of Social Learning) refer to how we define certain situations

Akers’ Social Learning Theory (2 of 2)

• The continuation of behavior is consequence-based

• If one wants a behavior to persist, learning theory postulates that the behavior must be rewarded when it occurs

• Concepts such as positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment come into play here

• Imitation occurs when behavior is observed in others and is later mimicked

Akers’ Social Structure Social Learning

• SSSL was created by expanding social learning theory to incorporate key concepts from macro-level and structural criminology

• The basic proposition of this theory is that variations in social structure, culture and locations of individuals and groups in the social system account for differences in crime rates in neighborhoods and cities

Cultural Transmission Theories (1 of 2)

• Focus on ideas that form values and beliefs that differ from conventional ideas

• Value systems that differ from conventional standards largely define subcultures

• Values, beliefs and norms of deviant subcultures predispose people to crime and provide a rationalization for criminal behavior

Rise of Subcultural Perspective

• Subcultural perspectives arose as the dominant perspective in the 1950s

• Cultural transmission theories are based on the idea that people internalize values and beliefs

• Cultural variation and the power of conformity are fundamental assumptions of this theory

Cultural Norms and Legal Process (1 of 2)

• The study of subculture is necessarily integrated with the study of legal process

• Law typically denotes the ideas/beliefs of the conventional or dominant culture

• An additional defining characteristic of subculture is cultural conflict

Cultural Norms and Legal Process (2 of 2)

• The differentiation between subculture and population segment is important to make

• Because American society is so multifaceted and groups often disagree about appropriate standards, criminal law function as a type of glue that holds society together

Cohen’s Middle-Class Measuring Rod

• Most discussions on subculture theory begin with the work of Albert Cohen

• The seminal work done by Cohen was written in 1955, and is titled, Delinquent Boys: The Subculture of the Gang

Five Major Causal Factors (1 of 2)

• Cohen developed a general theory that focuses on five major sub-factors that contribute to culture 1. Prevalence 2. Origins 3. Process 4. Purpose 5. Problem

Five Major Causal Factors (2 of 2)

• The overall learning process of lower class boys leaves them ill-prepared to compete in a world gauged by a “middle-class, measuring rod.”

• Deficiencies of lower-class youth are most noticeable in the classroom

Cloward and Ohlin Gang Typology

• Created in 1960, this theory is often paired with Cohen’s, because it is often viewed as a strain theory

• The hypothesis of this theory is that lower class teenagers realize they have little chance for success by conventional standards and thus resort to membership in delinquent gangs

Miller’s Focal Concerns

• Miller’s theory is a pure cultural theory for explaining gang delinquency

• While the middle class has values, the lower class has defining focal concerns (trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy)

• The rise of the subcultural perspective was aided by the circumstances of social transition

Demise of the Subcultural Perspective (1 of 2)

• As bandwagon shifts to the political left transpired, labeling theory replaced cultural transmission as the primary approach to explaining crime

• The main thrust of labeling theory was that crime and delinquency were definitions and labels that were assigned to people/events by operatives of the criminal justice system

• While historical developments set into motion a chain of events that moved criminological theory away from subculture, theory was further affected by paradigm shifts in social science research methodology

Demise of the Subcultural Perspective (2 of 2)

• Rise of positivism was a deathblow to subcultural theory

• Issues with statistical clarity, greatly hurt this theory

Subcultures of Violence and Rerise of Cultural Perspective

• Part of the reason cultural transmission theory survived was due to the work of Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967)

• Homicide was viewed as an acceptance of a value system that endorsed violence

• Subcultures of violence were identified throughout the social strata

Street Codes

• Criminologists have recognized the importance of street codes and subcultural values in more recent times

• Anderson’s, Code of the Streets, is defined in comparison to the decent moral codes of the inner city

• Recent research has attempted to test Anderson’s Code of the Streets

• Studies typically find that neighborhoods in which adolescents reside, the characteristics of their families, and experiences with racial discrimination all contribute to the street code

Street Codes and Conclusion

• Adoption of the street code, in turn, increases adolescents’ likelihood of committing and being a victim of violence

• Stewart’s contributions are unique in that they examine both the effects of living in a disadvantaged neighborhood (macro-level factors), and individual adoption of the street code (micro-level factors)

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth Edition

Chapter 7

Strain Theories of Crime

Introduction

• Strain theories are among the older theories in criminology, and it is impressive that they still hold today

• Theory was originally formed by Merton in the 1930s and has been consistently reformulated

• While the theory has waned on/off through the years, it is consistently one of the most tested theories in the literature today

What do Strain Theories Assume?

• Strain theories believe that people would not naturally commit crime if not for unfortunate external circumstances that push them toward criminal behavior

• People are generally law abiding, however sometimes obstacles prevent them from accomplishing their goals

Merton’s Theory and Its Variants

• Merton was the first to closely look at the American culture, or the American dream

• The underlying belief system of placing monetary/financial success above the “proper” ways to achieve success causes problems

Aspects of American Culture Relevant to Crime

1. Goals, or what we are socialized to want

2. Means or rules we are expected to follow while striving to achieve these goals

The American Dream

• Tells people what they should want out of life and how to go about getting it

• The problem in Merton’s belief is that the goals of American society are emphasized at the expense of having people follow rules

• Being successful is important, no matter what the means of achieving it are

The American Social Structure

• Merton examined what the impediments of the American Dream, might be 1. Based on socioeconomic conditions, it is often

IMPOSSIBLE for some people to be successful 2. The reality of inequality is the biggest impediment to

the American Dream

Responses to Strain

• When faced with an obstacle to achieving individual desires or goals, anomie or strain occurs

• People have to determine how to respond to/cope with it

Ways of Coping with Strain (1 of 2)

• According to Merton, there are five ways people can cope with strain 1. Conformity: Using typical means to be successful 2. Innovation: Rejection of legal means to achieve

success 3. Ritualism: Exerting effort, for purely dogmatic reasons

Ways of Coping with Strain (2 of 2)

• According to Merton, there are five ways people can cope with strain 4. Retreatism: Escaping mainstream society

(drug/alcohol abuse) 5. Rebellion: Rejecting mainstream goals and replacing

them with different means (revolutionaries)

Later Work on Merton’s Theory

• Merton’s theory did not receive much attention past its initial conceptualization (1938)

• This was due to political/ideological reasons, not scientific ones

• Cloward and Ohlin’s (1960) work on criminal subcultures extended Merton's theory

Empirical Support

• Merton’s theory and those that come after it suggest a certain image of criminal offenders

• Critics of the theory cite the lack of empirical research (especially prior to 1960) as a drawback to the theory

• Issues with self-report surveys have greatly hampered the theory’s testability

Agnew’s General Strain Theory

• During the 1980s and 1990s, scholars began to believe that strain theory could be rehabilitated

• Agnew was the most successful in this area, creating what is now known as General Strain Theory (GST)

• Agnew’s theory broadens Merton’s, and talks of more general means of coping

Types of Strain

• Agnew’s theory expands the causes of strain from 1 to 3

• Agnew does not believe that a single cause of strain is the problem but rather the accumulation of events leads to whether or not someone would break the law

Three Types of Strain

• Failure to achieve positively valued goals

• Something valued positively is removed from life

• Imposition of noxious stimuli

Types of Coping

• Agnew proposed several ways in which people cope with strain 1. Behavioral coping 2. Cognitively reinterpreting situations (cognitive coping) 3. Emotional coping

When Does Strain Lead to Delinquent Coping?

• Strain is more likely to lead to crime if it interferes with an area of life that an individual finds important

• Individuals with poor coping skills and/or resources are more likely to turn to crime

• Absence of conventional social support, high risk reward ratios of crime, and predisposition to crime also lead to delinquency

Empirical Support (1 of 2)

• Few researchers argue that Strain is a successful theory based on empirical support

• Most tests of GST have relied on survey data

• A variety of indicators have measured strain including neighborhood problems, negative life events, and hassles with peers

Empirical Support (2 of 2)

• While ample data exists to test Social Disorganization (a competitor of Strain), datasets that are able to test strain (measuring feelings/emotions) are limited

• Hoffman (2002) and a few other studies (eg. Brezina) have found support for the theory, but not enough research exists to support the theory

Messner and Rosenfeld, Institutional Anomie

• Originally conceptualized in 1994, this theory was built mostly on the work of Merton

• Focused specifically on institutions responsible for regulating behavior and how these institutions are subverted

Value Orientations (1 of 2)

• Messner and Rosenfeld focus on four American Value Orientations 1. Achievement 2. Individualism 3. Universalism 4. Money Fetish

Value Orientations (2 of 2)

• The primary idea behind this theory is that the economy holds disproportionate power

• Other institutions are devalued due to the overarching power of the economy

• See the low level wages of those who educate and socialize children

Empirical Testing

• Unlike Agnew’s theory, Messner and Rosenfeld’s theory has received little empirical testing

• The basic premise behind the theory is that dominant economic institutions should produce higher crime rates

• This is a difficult proposition to measure and has yielded inconclusive/inconsistent results

Social Support Theory (1 of 2)

• Cullen et al. (1994) attempted to respond to the weaknesses of Merton's original theory

• This theory focused on social support at the individual level as well as higher units of analysis

• The primary idea is that when people have difficulties they believe there are people who can support them

Social Support Theory (2 of 2)

• Cullen reasoned that there are high rates of crime in America because little structural or cultural support exists for people who get into difficulties

• Research on this theory is small in size, but in general it is supportive of the theoretical propositions

Merton’s theory – key definitions • Monolithic society – a society where everyone has the

same goals • Cultural structure – our GOALS – what are these in the U.S.

culture? Does everyone share the same goals? • Social structure – the MEANS available to achieve the goals

– access to good education, employment, hard work ethic • Anomie – a societal response when means of achieving

goals are not available to everyone in a society – a “sick” society (Durkheim) – crime then is a normal response to abnormal conditions (STRUCTURES ARE NOT INTEGRATED or do not match)

• Strain – An individual response to anomie – alienation, deprivation, hopelessness, individual choice is “constrained” by the social structure

Assumptions

• We live in a monolithic society • Structure of society provides the means of achieving

these goals (ours is a capitalist structure) • All have same goal of material success (agree?) • All subscribe to the cultural norm of achieving goals

through hard work at an acceptable occupation (do you agree with this?)

• All have access to means of achieving goals in a healthy society

• Unhealthy society creates crime and deviance

Merton’s theory of strain

• When there is a dysjunction between cultural structure and social structure (goals and means) and certain groups of people are blocked from the means to achieve these goals, a collective response to this condition is anomie; an individual response is strain

• Strain results in adapting to an abnormal living environment

• There are five different adaptations

Adaptations • Conformity + + • Innovation + – (criminal behavior,

shoplifting, underprivileged deviance) • Ritualism – + (Amish) • Retreatism – – (alcoholic – homeless

example) • Rebellion +/- +/-* (terrorists, commune-

types, Charles Manson family, “street culture”)

• * rejection of goals or means, replacement with new ones

Questions:

• What policies would this theory advocate to reduce crime?

• Could this theory explain white collar/corporate crime? • Does this theory explain why Martha Stewart engaged

in criminal behavior? • What about Michael Vick? • Can this theory explain desistance (when a person

stops engaging in criminal behavior)? • Can this theory explain crime trends over time? • Can this theory explain crimes of violence?

Policies based on Merton

• Increase means of achieving goals • Redistribute the wealth (reduce poverty) • Programs that increase opportunities for

legitimate employment, education (Johnson’s war on poverty)

• Put constraints on cultural goals – revisit the American dream and pursuit of “things” – what is the role of the media in generating a culture which is unrealistic for many to achieve?

• Japan as an example

Flaws of this theory • Doesn’t address why some individuals innovate and

others rebel, etc. (Agnew’s theory comes in) • Doesn’t explain WHY means of achieving goals are not

available to everyone! What facilitates this? (discrimination, felony disenfranchisement, industrial decline)

• Research suggests a limited/inconsistent relationship between SES and self-reported crime and we would expect a strong relationship

• Doesn’t explain why people with many “means” commit crime (like Martha Stewart)

• Assumptions are not correct – not everyone shares goals, work ethic not shared by all (religion, laziness)

Flaws (continued)

• Doesn’t address lack of equal access to illegitimate means of achieving goals (Cloward and Ohlin)

• Downplays role of non-sociological factors • Downplays role of free will in choosing to

commit crime • What role does opportunity play in crime

production? • Deficient policies to reduce crime – don’t work

Agnew’s general strain theory

• Assumes we all have some strain • Argues that we must focus on individual

differences and quantitative dimensions of strain

• Addresses “why do some respond to strain in one way and some in the other way?

Dimensions of strain and individual factors

• Duration (length of time it lasts) • Magnitude (Severe or moderate?) • Recency (how recent is strain) • Clustering

• Individual factors that affect response to strain include – IQ, social skills, social support, association with delinquent peers, personality traits (mental illness, temperament)

Agnew argues that . . . • Strain most likely to lead to crime when:

– Conditions are perceived to be unjust – Strain is high in magnitude – Low level of social control (formal or informal?) – Great pressures to cope by breaking the law (role of

community, peers, sub-culture’s expectations)

– Pulls together individual and social factors – Are there personality types that are more likely to

negatively respond to strain? Why would this be important to know?

Cloward and Ohlin

• Concept of “differential opportunity” • Argue that if a person can be denied access to

legitimate means of achieving goals they can also be denied access to illegitimate means

• If individuals want to “innovate” they might lack the skills, knowledge, personality, or opportunity to use illegitimate means – Learning structures and performance structures

• This could explain the FORM innovation takes:

Access to illegitimate means to achieve goals

• Women blocked from criminal organizations so don’t have access to these opportunities (why women commit non-violence?)

• Women used to be blocked from work outside of the home so lacked opportunities in the workplace

• For adolescents, their access to illegitimate means depends on the resources available to them, such as cars, money, intelligence

Reaction Formation theory – Cohen • A more specific “adaptation” as specified by Merton – explains how

subcultures that support violence are developed • Precursor to “subculture of violence” theories • Argues that middle class promotes values such as hard work,

deferring gratification, respecting property, non-violent methods, hope for the future, etc.

• These are taught in school and promoted by the media • Lack of opportunities to achieve these goals and lack of success in

middle-class schools by members of the lower classes leads to strain (middle class, majority teachers)

• Strain produces a “reaction-formation” which is reversal of middle- class values (rejection of middle-class values)

• Subcultures evolve that promote violence (such as gangs) • This is an adaptation of “rebellion” per Merton’s theory

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth Edition

Chapter 8

Control Theories of Crime

Introduction

• The Control Perspective is among the oldest and most popular explanations for the causes of criminality

• The basic idea behind the control perspective is that people are fundamentally selfish/pleasure seekers (dating back to work of Hobbes)

• Also drew from the work of Durkheim, Bentham, and Freud

What Control Theories Assume about Human Nature? (1 of 4)

• Control theories assume that the desire to commit crimes is natural to all human beings and what needs to be explained is why people resist criminal temptation

What Control Theories Assume about Human Nature? (2 of 4)

• Control theories begin with the view that crime is simply a consequence of rational self-interest, of which everyone is born with

• Learning to commit crimes from others is not necessary

What Control Theories Assume about Human Nature? (3 of 4)

• Another factor that is commonly assumed in control theories is that there is general agreement in the world about what constitutes socially unacceptable behavior

• Crime is not simply an arbitrary product of moral entrepreneurs or powerful people

What Control Theories Assume about Human Nature? (4 of 4)

• Some people find the fundamental assumptions of human behavior believable, others do not

• It is important to be aware that assumptions are very different than proven facts

• Assumptions cannot be scientifically proven

Early Control Theories

• Reiss (1951) was the first criminologist to discuss control theories, personal and social forms of control

• Toby (1957) discussed stakes of conformity where individuals resist criminal temptations due to being interested in conforming

• Nye (1958) focused on two types of external control, e.g., direct and indirect

Hirschi’s Social Control Theory (1 of 4)

• The control theory formulated by Hirschi (1969) has taken on the role as the most frequently referenced social control theory

• Hirschi’s conceptualization focuses on the individual’s social bonds as means of imposing restraints on behavior

Hirschi’s Social Control Theory (2 of 4)

• The Social Bond is an individual’s connectedness to society and crime, and occurs with weakened connections to others

• Social bond consists of four elements 1. involvement 2. commitment 3. attachment 4. Belief

Hirschi’s Social Control Theory (3 of 4)

• Criminals are not socialized to commit crime, but rather they are undersocialized to conform

• While some of these bonds may vary independently, Hirschi hypothesized that the four elements of the social bond are interconnected

Hirschi’s Social Control Theory (4 of 4)

• People with weakened bonds do not necessarily become criminals, but criminal temptations will speak more persuasively to this group of people

Empirical Testing (1 of 2)

• For the first 25 years of publication, Hirschi’s social control theory was subject to empirical testing more than any other theory

• Hirschi himself tested his theory in his 1969 book using data from California

Empirical Testing (2 of 2)

• Empirical testing supported the theory, but some weaknesses were found

• Associations with delinquent peers (bonds) were more closely related to crime

• Questions asked on Hirschi’s self-report surveys also may have been problematic

Self-Control Theory

• Gottfredson and Hirschi came up with this theory in 1990

• This book focuses little on social bonds, and is much more concerned with individual levels of self-control

People with Low Self-Control (1 of 2)

• Hirschi argues that low self-control leads to distinctive personality characteristics

• These individuals are lazy, impulsive, self-centered, belligerent and cannot deny instant gratification

• A common thread of low self-control behaviors are that they are potentially destructive

People with Low Self-Control (2 of 2)

• While self-control encompasses many traits it is also unidimensional

• Personality traits are symptoms of having low self-control

• Social bonds fit into the theory, in that people with low self-control fritter away the opportunities to create bonds

Origins of Self Control

• Where does low self-control come from? – It is an acquired characteristic – Childrearing is the primary agent for the development

of self-control

Empirical Research and Criticisms of Self- Control Theory (1 of 2)

• Since 1990, few theories have generated as much research attention and discussion as self-control theory

• Self-report surveys are the typical methods of testing self- control theory

• Issues with measurement (reference the Grasmick scale) have made measuring self-control difficult

Empirical Research and Criticisms of Self- Control Theory (2 of 2)

• Results of the empirical tests have generally been supportive of the theory

• Individuals with low self-control tend to engage in more crime

• Evidence exists linking self-control with adverse life circumstances

• While significant, the effect of low self-control on crime has not been found to be large

Criticisms

• A major criticism exists as to how self-control is measured

• Self control theory typically has significant problems accounting for spurious variables

• Issues with delinquent peers are especially difficult to account for, and must be taken into consideration

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (1 of 4)

• One of self-control theory’s more controversial positions is its claims that by late childhood individual differences in self-control remain relatively stable

• The life course perspective (see Sampson & Laub, 1993) offers a different view

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (2 of 4)

• This perspective is based on data originally collected by the Glueck’s in the 1950s

• This theory accounts for why juveniles become offenders in the first place

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (3 of 4)

• Also looks at how and why transitions between childhood and adolescence can shape later adult offending

• Family context shapes juvenile offending

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (4 of 4)

• The argument of stability versus change over the life course is important to keep in mind here

• The paradox is that while most if not all adult offenders were juvenile offenders, not all juvenile offenders become adult offenders

• Social bonds account for this, due to Sampson and Laub

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory

• Stability and change are hallmarks of individuals according to Sampson and Laub's theory

• Theory hypothesizes that individual behavior is remarkably consistent over time

• Consistency over the life course is known as a trajectory

Self-Control Revised?

• Hirschi updated and revised self-control theory in 2004

• Self-Control was updated to include the totality of consequences an individual considers when deciding whether or not to commit crimes

• Social bonds are these consequences

Policy Implications (1 of 2)

• Social control theory suggests policies that would strengthen bonds between individuals and society

• Self control theory advocates for programs that help young children improve self-control

• Similar to many theories, control theories question the usefulness of prison

Policy Implications (2 of 2)

• Self-Control Theory is very concerned with the court and correctional system policies

• Threats of exceedingly punitive sanctions are of no value if people do not consider them

• Self-control theory indicates that the formal justice system offers little crime prevention in return for huge tax expenditures

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth Edition

Chapter 9

Theories of Social Conflict

The Conflict Perspective (1 of 3)

• Crime from the conflict perspective is considered a byproduct of social inequality

• Crime arises from both the effort of those in control groups and those positioned lower in the social structure

The Conflict Perspective (2 of 3)

• Crime also arises as a collective expression of alienation, deprivation, and frustration by those in the working class

• The conflict perspective is particularly applicable in highly stratified, pluralistic, multicultural societies such as the United States

The Conflict Perspective (3 of 3)

• Those who gain power naturally define crime and deviance in ways that serve their interests, and their designations determine how society will be structured

Marxist Heritage

• The philosophical foundation in which the conflict perspective is built is traced to the works of Karl Marx

• According to Marx, the economic system of capitalism is the source of most social problems, including crime, because it creates competition for profit

Marxist Concepts (1 of 2)

• The capitalistic desire for profit is realized through the extraction of surplus value from the working class, by the ruling class

• Profit through surplus value can only be realized through the exploitation of the working class by the ruling class

• The insatiable desire for profit leads to alienation

Marxist Concepts (2 of 2)

• Marx predicted that as alienation became obvious and widely recognized throughout the working class, class consciousness and later revolution would arise

• Mainstream definitions of success factor into class consciousness

Orthodox Marxism

• Also known as Instrumental Marxism

• This theory posits that a direct relationship exists between the interests of the ruling class and the criminal justice system

• These interests are identifiable based on the historical functioning of the criminal justice system

Structural Marxism (1 of 2)

• Differs from Orthodox Marxism in that it acknowledges an indirect relationship between ruling class interests and how social class institutions operate

Structural Marxism (2 of 2)

• According to this theory, ruling class interests are subtle

• While these theories don’t explicitly discuss crime, they are the bases for several theories that do

Labeling Theory (1 of 4)

• The Labeling perspective acknowledges that people first participate in norm violation, either crime or a less serious act by chance or as a part of growing up

• The difference between delinquents and non-delinquents often is as simple as who gets caught

Labeling Theory (2 of 4)

• Lemert and Tannenbaum are two of the primary labeling theorists

• According to Lemert (1967), initial acts of deviance, known as primary deviance lead to reactions from authority that are often negative

Labeling Theory (3 of 4)

• Youths are seen as delinquent and lose opportunities to participate in conventional activities

• Continued participation in crime is known as secondary deviance

Labeling Theory (4 of 4)

• Secondary deviance reflects both the ironic social construction of crime through the labeling process and the importance of self-concept

• Secondary deviance is promoted through internal normalization of behaviors and the lacking of social controls

Reintegrative Shaming (1 of 2)

• Braithwaite’s (1989) theory of Reintegrative Shaming is the most important recent contribution to labeling theory

• Argues that it is illogical and counterproductive to publicly label

Reintegrative Shaming (2 of 2)

• Characterized as a combination of several perspectives including: labeling, subcultural, control, opportunity and learning

Marxist Criminology (1 of 2)

• Marxist or radical criminologists use the Marxist framework to examine criminal law, crime itself, and government practices of social control

• Social Origins of the law are seen as reflective of special interests that are traceable to class

Marxist Criminology (2 of 2)

• Marxists contend that criminal law serves to control the lower classes and provide immunity for crimes of the ruling class

• From the Marxist perspective, criminal law is seen as a tool of repression by the ruling class

White-Collar and State Crime (1 of 2)

• Marxist’s are more focused on White-Collar Crimes than street crimes

• Sutherland was an early theorist who examined white collar crime

• Some theorists believe white collar crime (fraud, false advertising) are more harmful than street crime

White-Collar and State Crime (2 of 2)

• Political or state crime differs from white collar crime in respect to its primary objectives

• Political gain as opposed to economic advantage

• Political objectives are the state’s need to obtain power or authority

Left Realism

• Evolved due to critical theorists’ neglect of inner city crime

• Young (1987) is a well known Left Realist

• Left realists are quick to criticize critical criminologists who neglect to support victims of crime

Cultural Criminology (1 of 2)

• Closely related to the field of cultural studies and influenced by postmodern insights

• This perspective is focused on crime control, and uses techniques such as media analysis

• The role of culture (e.g.- how certain subcultural groups recruit members) is heavily emphasized in this perspective

Cultural Criminology (2 of 2)

• Qualitative research methods play a large part in how cultural criminology is studied

• The immediacy of crime, or firsthand observation is helpful in this area

• Cultural Criminology is highly tied into social constructionism

Social Construct of Crime (1 of 2)

• Crime is typically explored objectively, but can also be examined subjectively

• Subjectivists also known as Constructionists or those who contend that crime is socially/subjectively constructed

Social Construct of Crime (2 of 2)

• No individual or act is inherently deviant to society

• Media heavily influences what is criminal

Feminist Criminology (1 of 3)

• Frequently misunderstood and misrepresented

• Not simply the study of women and crime

• Feminist Criminology aims to place gender at the center of discourse

Feminist Criminology (2 of 3)

• Feminist Criminology much like Feminism itself allows for the idea that women’s experiences differ dramatically from those of men

Feminist Criminology (3 of 3)

• Three primary types of feminist criminology exist 1. liberal 2. radical 3. marxist

Types of Feminist Criminology (1 of 2)

• Liberal Feminism is a cultural orientation to gender differences that examines attitudes about gender roles

• Radical Feminism is a more aggressive approach and is the stereotypical, “anti male” perspective

• See Hagan’s (1989)- Power-Control Theory

Types of Feminist Criminology (2 of 2)

• Marxist/Socialist Feminism attributes gender oppression to inequality inherent in capitalistic economies

• Feminist Criminology has become highly influential in recent years

Types of Feminist Criminology and Conclusion

• Feminist Criminology is a more recent development in the attempt to understand crime

• It is currently gaining popular acceptance into the mainstream

• Advocates such as Sharpe do not believe this has been fully achieved as of yet

Developmental Criminology

• A theoretical model that attempts to link life transitions and developmental processes with patterns of offending behavior over time

• Notion is that involvement in crime closely resembles a legitimate career with a beginning, an ascension, a peak, a decline, and an exit

• Examines persistence and desistance of criminal behavior (why do people keep committing crime and why do people stop?)

• Described as “dynamic” rather than static

• Interactive(?)

Example

• Terrie Moffitt’s Dual Pathway Developmental Theory

• Demonstrates existence of adolescent limited (AL) offenders and life-course persistent (LCP) offenders

• Both have very different pathways in and out of crime, start criminal careers at different ages, both commit different types of crimes, and both have very different psychological and family profiles

Key findings from developmental study of crime

• Most offenders will desist quickly • Many will desist without any criminal justice system

involvement • Some, a small percentage, will persist over a long period of

time (these are the career criminals, habitual or chronic offenders)

– This small percentage (between 6-8%) is responsible for a large percentage of crime committed over time (the 80/20 rule) ▪ Wolfgang study – found 6% of the cohort studied

committed more than 50% of the crime over time ▪ Orange County, CA – found 8% of young offenders

responsible for nearly 60% of crime totals over time

The 8% solution: Preventing serious, repeat juvenile crime

• The Orange County, CA Probation Department’s research staff tracked two groups of first-time juvenile offenders for three years and found that a small percentage (8%) of the juveniles were:

– Arrested repeatedly (a minimum of 4 times within a 3-year period) (These are PERSISTERS)

– Responsible for 55% of arrests – Could be identified reliably at first contact with the

juvenile justice system – What characteristics do you think these kids had

compared to the 92% that were DESISTERS?

8% solution

• These 8% enter system with complex set of problems or RISK FACTORS which were identified as:

– Involvement in crime at an early age – A multi-problem profile including:

▪ Significant family problems (abuse, neglect, criminal family members, lack of supervision and control)

▪ Problems at school ▪ Drug and alcohol abuse ▪ Behaviors such as gang involvement, running away and stealing

– Many of these features make desistance more challenging (web of problems)

– Given these findings, if you were a judge . . . – What would you do with the 92% that would desist quickly? – What about the 8% to make desistance happen quickly?

8% Intervention Program • Created the “8% Early Intervention Program” to serve first-time

offenders who were no older than 15.5 and who exhibited at least three of the four risk factors in the multi-problem profile

• Goals included: – Increase structure, supervision, and support for families – Make kids accountable – Make school more important – Promote prosocial values, behaviors and relationships – Develop new interventions in the community – Bottom line: Identify the “persisters” and help them at an early

age – Young Juvenile Offender project here in Virginia (Functional

Family Therapy, intensive home-based therapy) – Fast Track Project (page 328 of textbook)

How does desistance happen?

• Two theories of desistance – Sommer – Shover

• How do you think desistance happens?

Stages of desistance – Sommer (gradual process)

• Stage 1 – Catalysts for change, making decision to stop offending

– Socially disjunctive experiences – hitting rock bottom, tiredness, illness, fear of death, aging, perception of risk/certainty of punishment increases

– Delayed deterrence – increasing severity of punishment with multiple charges (3 strikes); increasing fear of punishment; harder to do time

– Assessment – reappraisal of life and goals, psychic change, role of religion?

– Decision – Decision to quit and/or initial attempts at desistance; usually a conscious decision to stop

Stages (continued)

• Stage 2 – Discontinuance – Public announcement of decision to end criminal participation, claim to a

new social identity (beginning of certification process)

• Stage 3 – Maintenance – Ability to successfully renegotiate identity, support of significant others,

integration into new social networks, ties to conventional roles, stabilization of new social identity

– THIS IS THE CRITICAL STAGE – Likely to be episodic with occasional relapses interspersed with longer

periods of good behavior – Typically a slowing down process, deceleration (fewer criminal events) – Involves a successful certification process (pronouncement by others that

you have moved from “offender” to “law-abiding citizen”

– If you were an offender going through this process, what factors do you think might help you be successful?

Factors that impact success at Stage 3

• Access to legitimate opportunities, employment opportunities

• Social support (family, friends, neighbors, programs like OAR)

• Ability to be involved in legitimate activities

• Ability to shun criminal world (gangs) (Move away?)

• Formal treatment programs that provide ties to people (AA and sponsors; drug treatment courts)

• Success of certification process – Appear in legitimate locations; importance of family; “appearing” normal

(remove tattoos, piercings); having an address and phone number

• Reduce negative stigma of probation and parole supervision (A CORRECTIONAL PARADOX)

• Prison-based self-improvement programs

Shover’s Model of Exiting

• A five-pronged process rather than a three-point stage – Aging Process – Orientational Change (new perspective of self,

growing awareness of time, changing aspirations and goals, growing sense of tiredness)

– Interpersonal Change (ties to another person, ties to a line of activity)

– Modified Calculus (risks now outweigh the reward – rewards of crime now seen as minimal)

– Reduction in Criminal Behavior

Laub and Samson study “Shared Beginnings and Divergent Lives”

• Main finding: Found support for Shover’s exiting process. Three main determinants of a “knifing off” of criminal activity included:

– Joining the military – Getting married – Finding legitimate employment – Religion also played a role (although minor) – Other findings:

▪ Did not observe a process but a quick change for some ▪ Desistance did not seem to depend on perceived risk of legal

punishment ▪ Conditions necessary for exiting life of crime are largely

outside the correctional system’s control ▪ Argues that the CJS does little to make desistance happen –

may actually make persistence in crime more likely – HOW? ▪ What policy implications does this approach have if we want

to make desistance happen sooner rather than later?

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction Fourth Edition

Chapter 10

Evaluating and Integrating Theory

Theory Construction (1 of 2)

• The development of new theories and refinements of existing ones is known as theory construction

• This process is one in which factors which are known to be connected to crime are connected to new ideas

Theory Construction (2 of 2)

• When constructing theories criminologists typically work with what they already have and seek ways to change it

• Most theories tend to better address certain types of offenses by featuring explanations that more effectively account for either violent or property crime

• No simple overarching grand theory of crime exists

• Questions abound: Which theories are right? Which are not?

Evaluating Theory (1 of 3)

• To begin a discussion of comparing the relative and "correctness" of individual theories it is important to consider both the diversity and complexity of statements that are included in theoretical criminology

• As theories have evolved over time, research methodologies have evolved and become increasingly sophisticated

Evaluating Theory (2 of 3)

• Advances in statistical technology have allowed for more precision in determining causal inference

• Theories have become more complex as today's theorists have become more cognizant of theory-methods symmetry

• Empirical assessment with accurate methods is highly important

Evaluating Theory (3 of 3)

• In order to sort out concerns with theory, criminologists compare and evaluate theories in 3 separate ways 1. Singularly 2. Theory competition 3. Theory integration

Singular Theory Assessment

• Simplest approach to assessing theory

• This approach seeks to evaluate the level of support that is available for theory/ ies

• Data is gathered in order to examine whether formally stated propositions that specify causal relationships between theories can be supported

Theory Testing (1 of 2)

• If a sample is adequate to allow generalizability and operationalizations of key variables are specifically precise in order to minimize measurement error, a theory can be shown to be supported

Theory Testing (2 of 2)

• It is important to remember that it is hard to confirm or disconfirm theories

• Theories are tested by multiple researchers who may or may not find contradictory levels of support for particular theories

• Theory testing also entails spatial and temporal variation

Theory Competition (1 of 2)

• Involves direct and systematic comparison of two or more theories

• Competition lies in the rank ordering individual theories according to 1. Level of empirical support 2. Scope of coverage (breadth)

Theory Competition (2 of 2)

• Assessing several theories at once allows for identification of what explanations are better for understanding which theories better explain the crime problem

• Reference to level of empirical support typically means whether variable analysis is accepted as statistically significant

Importance

• Theory competition is important in two respects 1. Theory comparison enables better explanations of

criminal behavior to be found 2. New knowledge is generated that allows for theory

construction, revision

Furthering Theory

• Typically done in one of 3 ways 1. Emergence of Original Theory 2. Theoretical Elaboration 3. Theoretical Integration

Empirical Support for Competing Theories (1 of 2)

• Most theories we have examined view crime as a function of many separate causes

• Individual theories address a wide range of disparate and ideologically opposed policy responses

Empirical Support for Competing Theories (2 of 2)

• In reporting the relative empirical support for criminological theories it is essential to identify one qualifying concern

• While theories are evaluated based on strength and scope, not all theories can be examined simultaneously

Theoretical Elaboration (1 of 4)

• Requires neither the introduction of totally new ideas nor the resolution of differences across theories

• Elaboration builds on existing theory by considering what new variables might be realized to add more explanation

• To elaborate a theory is to extend it, and to further specify it

Theoretical Elaboration (2 of 4)

• Some argue that virtually all the theories we have are a result of theory elaboration

• Theories are largely considered original because they introduce and emphasize causal and contributing factors previously ignored/neglected

Theoretical Elaboration (3 of 4)

• Elaboration is better understood as a process of extending existing perspectives to explain crime that further advance our overall knowledge base

Theoretical Integration (4 of 4)

• An alternative approach to address the shortcomings of any single theory/ies and theory elaboration is theoretical integration

• Also referred to as theoretical subsumption

• This process refers to more specific concepts being regrouped or absorbed under a larger concept

Theoretical Integration

• Theory integration enables two main objectives 1. Construction of models that offer greater

accountability for unexplained crime 2. Creation of general theory

General Criminological Theories

• Criminological theories are considered middle range theories because they seek to account for systematic processes in human behavior and social structure that facilitates/predicts the occurrence of crime/crime rates

• General theories are grand perspectives that purport to account for all crime and deviance, across time and space

How Theory Integration Occurs

• Two primary pathways 1. Sequential Integration (most common approach) 2. Conceptual fusion (more complex)

Theory Informing Policy and Practice

• How is criminological theory used in the real world in practical ways?

• On the most basic level, theory is a reason for crime to occur

• By having a theory explain the whys of crime, tangible steps can be taken to intervene

Crime Prevention

• Crime prevention is an example of how theory is put into practical action

• Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTE D) is an example of this

• CPTED uses theoretical framework (Routine Activity Theory), to make environments safer

Concluding Thoughts (1 of 2)

• Specific theories discussed within this context do not explain why crime has occurred

• Each of these theories is a way of looking at the occurrences of crime and taking a step forward in understanding SOME crimes and criminals

Concluding Thoughts (2 of 2)

• As a theory builds and gains in predictive ability, it can also be more easily translated into public policy and preventative measures

• More effective prevention, intervention, and crime reduction is the goal

• Understanding Criminological Theory is key to effective crime prevention and criminological practice

Victim (Section 14)

• Concept dates back to ancient cultures and civilizations such as the ancient Hebrews

• Original meaning rooted in the idea of a sacrifice or scapegoat – the execution or casting out of a person or animal to satisfy a deity or hierarchy

• In 1940s, became known as “anyone caught up in an asymmetric relationship or situation”

• Today, it refers to anyone who experiences injury, loss or hardship due to any cause (forces beyond one’s control)

Crime victims

• Refers to any person, group, or entity who has suffered injury or loss due to illegal activity. The harm can be psychological, physical, or economic.

• Typology of victims – Primary crime victims – Secondary crime victims – Tertiary crime victims (vicarious harm)

What is victimology? • The scientific study of victimization, including the

following: – Victim and offender relationships – Why do individuals get victimized? Do victims contribute

to their own victimization? – What individual traits lead to higher levels of

victimization? – Interactions between victims and the CJS – Connections between victims and the media – Victims and the cost of crime – Victims and social movements – Rights of crime victims

Victimology

• Began in the 1940s and 1950s • Fathers of this field are Mendolsohn and von

Hentig • Early work by Mendolsohn developed a

typology of victims – the first being “completely innocent” and the other five contributing to the crime in some way, shape or form (idea of “victim precipitation”)

Who gets victimized?

• MOST victimization is NOT RANDOM! Do you agree or disagree?

• Person most likely to be a crime victim is a young, black, unmarried male living in poverty in an urban environment. Why?

• Risk of victimization drops after age 25. Why? • Being married is a protective factor. Why? • Victimization at Time 1 is significant predictor

of victimization at Time 2 (odds ratio of 5.7)

Theories of victimology • Victim precipitation – Victims often are also the offenders! – Victim provocation (rape). Do rape victims “ask for it”? Is

there such a thing as “justifiable rape”?

• Routine activities/lifestyle – Certain characteristics and lifestyles are more conducive to

victimization – 80/20 rule (see page 533) (large/small) (20% of

respondents were victims in 81% of all offenses) – Victimization most likely in certain places and for certain

types of people

Consequences of victimization

• Permanent disabilities • Death or other physical harm • Depression, guilt, self-blame, lowered self-

esteem (rape trauma syndrome) • Chronic fear of crime (impact of high fear of

crime?) (informal vs. formal social control) • Anger • Insomnia

Victimization and the criminal justice system – the Victim Rights Movement • 1970s – marked by a vigorous victim rights

movement (women being victimized twice in rape cases, Women’s liberation movement)

• 1983 – Office for Victims of Crime created • Proposal of Federal Crime Victims’ Bill of

Rights • State rights outlined

Virginia “Victims Bill of Rights” (19.2- 11.01)

• Victim and witness protection • Financial assistance • Notices • Victim input (during plea negotiations and during

trial) • Courtroom assistance • Post-trial assistance • Establishment of Victim/Witness programs to

further these goals.

Victim and witness protection

• Separate waiting rooms • Protective orders (do you think they work?) • Lethality assessments • Cell phones • Aware alarms • Shelters • Law enforcement escort to car • Courthouse security enhancements • Assist with transportation

Financial assistance

• Criminal Injuries Compensation Fund (fines collected from offenders)

• Restitution – issues with this? • Property held by law enforcement agencies • Social services • Travel reimbursements • Evidence recovery kits • Crime scene clean-up

Notices

• Employer and landlord intercession • DOC and jail notifications • AG appeal notifications • Plea agreement notifications

Courtroom assistance

• Confidentiality forms • Interpeters • Closed preliminary hearings • Two-way closed circuit televisions • Court room tours • Commonwealth Attorneys meetings

Post-trial assistance

• Final disposition letters • Jail release in appeal cases • Victims to receive services in cases returned

on appeal

Victim input

• Written VIS • Right to remain in the courtroom • 1998 – oral VIS allowed in courtroom

Questions

• If we have limited funds, should money be used to pay for offender services to rehabilitate OR to reimburse crime victims and pay for their services? Which approach would be most beneficial?

• Should victims be allowed to give victim impact testimony in court? What might be some problems with this?

Consensus vs. Conflict models

• Consensus – Asks questions like: Why do people break the law? What

causes people to be criminal? Why do people conform? (the theories we’ve looked at and more to come)

– Assumes there are differences between criminals and non- criminals

• Conflict – Asks questions like: Why are some behaviors defined as

criminal and others are not? Why is the law applied differently to some people than it is to others?

– No assumption of differences between criminals and non- criminals

Conflict approach to crime • Society is composed of diverse social groups • Groups are class-based (the owners of the means of

production and the working class) – from Marx • Conflict is inherent in social life (because of the

diversity among groups)

• Law is a tool of power in the hands of the group with the most power

• What is criminal, then, is decided by the powerful groups

• Crime does not result from biological, psychological or behavioral factors – criminality is a social status defined by the way an individual is perceived, evaluated and treated by legal authorities

Conflict approach (continued)

• The wealthy in a capitalist society make the laws to protect their property from lower classes

• End result is we have more laws against behaviors committed by the poor and fewer laws against behaviors committed by the ruling class (even though their “crimes” might be more harmful”

• Harsher penalties for committing these acts (bank robbery vs. bank fraud; crack vs. cocaine)

• Jeffery Reiman “The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison”

Conflict approach (continued)

• How does this approach explain all criminal behavior? – Crime by the wealthy and powerful is attributed to

greed created by capitalism – Crime by the powerless is attributed to the need

to violate the law in order to survive

What is “cool” about this approach?

• Asks a critical question: Why is some behavior defined as criminal and other behavior is not?

• Why are behaviors punished more harshly depending on who engages in them?

• Examines the process of law formation and who has the power to make laws

• Focus is now on identifying and abolishing inequalities in the system rather than looking at differences between offenders and non-offenders

New research questions

• Are sentences applied in a discriminatory manner against members of the lower social classes?

• In times of high unemployment, do we use incarceration more? Why?

• Have laws changed over time depending on who has power in a given time period?

Limitations of this approach

• Fails to examine role of individual in criminal behavior

• Does not account for laws that clearly benefit the disadvantaged over the wealthy

• Assumes all conflict is class-based – what about conflict based on cultures, racial groups, genders?

• Does this approach apply outside of capitalist society?

• Tends to romanticize the criminal and crime – depicts the offender as the “victim” of an oppressive system struggling to survive!

Some discussion questions

• How do we solve the crime problem based on this approach? Is this feasible?

• Do you think that social class makes a difference in terms of how a person is treated by the criminal justice system? If so, can you give specific examples to illustrate this difference?

• Do you think capitalist societies purposely create sense that crime is a huge problem generated by the lower classes in order to preserve the existing social structure?

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