Geography discussion 2

atmosphere

Review

Health Risk and Environmental Assessment of Cement Production in Nigeria

Mmemek-Abasi Etim 1,* , Kunle Babaremu 2, Justin Lazarus 1 and David Omole 1

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Citation: Etim, M.-A.; Babaremu, K.;

Lazarus, J.; Omole, D. Health Risk

and Environmental Assessment of

Cement Production in Nigeria.

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111.

https://doi.org/10.3390/

atmos12091111

Academic Editor: Deborah Traversi

Received: 19 July 2021

Accepted: 11 August 2021

Published: 30 August 2021

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1 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Covenant University, Ota 112233, Nigeria; [email protected] (J.L.); [email protected] (D.O.)

2 Directorate of Pan African University for Life and Earth Science Institute, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200284, Nigeria; [email protected]

* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The cement manufacturing industry has played a fundamental role in global economic development, but its production is a major facilitator to anthropogenic CO2 release and solid waste generation. Nigeria has the largest cement industry in West Africa, with an aggregate capacity of 58.9 million metric tonnes (MMT) per year. The Ministry for Mines and Steel Development asserts that the nation possesses total limestone deposits of around 2.3 trillion MT with 568 MMT standing as established reserves and 11 MMT used. Cement industries are largely responsible for releasing air pollutants and effluents into water bodies with apparent water quality deterioration over the years. Air pollution from lime and cement-producing plants is seen as a severe instigator of occupational health hazards and work-related life threats, negatively affecting crop yields, buildings, and persons residing in the vicinity of these industries. World Bank observed in 2015 that 94% of the Nigerian populace is susceptible to air pollutants that surpass WHO guidelines. In 2017, World Bank further reported that 49,100 premature deaths emanated from atmospheric PM2.5, with children beneath age 5 having the greatest vulnerability owing to lower respiratory infections, thereby representing approximately 60% of overall PM2.5-induced deaths. Cement manufacturing involves the significant production of SO2, NOx, and CO connected to adverse health effects on humans. Sensitive populations such as infants, the aged, and persons having underlying respiratory ailments like asthmatics, emphysema, or bronchitis are seen to be most affected. Consequently, in addressing this challenge, growing interests in enacting carbon capture, usage, and storage in the cement industry is expected to alleviate the negative environmental impact of cement production. Still, no carbon capture technology is yet to achieve commercialization in the cement industry. Nonetheless, huge advancement has been made in recent years with the advent of vital research in sorption-enhanced water gas shift, underground gasification combined cycle, ammonium hydroxide solution, and the microbial-induced synthesis of calcite for CO2 capture and storage, all considered sustainable and feasible in cement production.

Keywords: cement production; particulate matter (PM2.5 & PM10); carbon capture; public health; air pollution; water pollution

1. Introduction

Cement is the most common and extensively used adhesive in the construction in- dustry. It is employed on highways, houses, embankments, bridges, commercial estab- lishments, and flyovers. Hence, the cement manufacturing industry has played a funda- mental role in global economic development, with construction, steel, crude oil, iron, and telecommunications, constituting major infrastructural aspects worldwide. Swift commer- cialization, urban civilization, and the necessity to boost domestic goods production have been the lead cause for the surge in cement production [1]. In Nigeria, the availability of raw materials has encouraged numerous local productions. As of 2013, annual cement

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12091111 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/atmosphere

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 2 of 16

production increased significantly above 1300%, from below 2 million tonnes in 1990 to above 28 million tonnes in 2013 [2]. Cement is a powder-like material comprising lime and mud-clay as fundamental elements, utilized in all kinds of building and civil constructions. The used clay provides silica, iron oxide, and alumina, while the calcined lime principally gives calcium-oxide. As highlighted in Table 1, raw materials used for cement produc- tion are obtained by blasting rock quarries with explosives [3,4]. The blasted rocks are transported to the plants, where they are crushed into chunks of 12 inch-sized particles. Through the process of prehomogenization, cement is produced depending on the needed proportion of ground clay and limestones. For a pressurized rotatory furnace of around 1400 ◦C, these unprocessed resources (Table 1) are calcined to become a clinker [3,5]. The clinker is then pulverized with some minerals to a powder to produce Portland cement [4].

Table 1. Raw materials used for clinker production.

Calcium, Ca Limestone involving quick-lime from treating wastewater, caustic-lime

Silicon, Si Sand such as harnessed mould (silica sand-clay-liquid mixture)

Silicon–Aluminium, Si–Al Kaolinite, bentonite, and similar forms of terra-cotta clay

Iron, Fe Iron-based metals, including heated pyrite and adulterated metallic minerals

Silicon–Aluminium–Calcium, Si–Al–Ca Powdered blast furnace slag such as ashes from fuel combustion ashes, oil-soluble

Aluminium, Al Raw metallic apparatus constituting recycling salt slag, aluminium hydroxide

Sulphur, S Non-artificial gypsum such as Natural anhydrite Gypsum from flue gas desulfurization

Global cement generation was 4.1Bnt in 2020 with a growth rate of 24% from its highest in 2010 [6], with China clearly leading as the world’s largest cement producer, representing 59.31% of overall manufactured cement globally. Table 2 shows the global cement production, with China producing more than 12 of the world’s cement combined. These recent expansions have been driven by developing countries such as India and China, with a substantial increase in cement manufacturing around Asia, Africa, and South America. As the earth’s population and industrialization boom, universal cement production is bound to surge by at least 12–23% by 2050 [7]. Nigeria possesses the largest cement industry within West Africa, with at least 12 registered companies amounting to a merged cement capacity of 58.9 Mt/yr. Dangote Cement is the largest cement producer in Nigeria and West Africa, manufacturing a combined share of more than 28.5 Mt/yr of cement capacity. Also, LafargeHolcim (through its subsidiary AshakaCem & Lafarge WAPCO) and BUA Group boost 18.9 Mt/yr and 11.5 Mt/yr of integrated cement capacity, respectively [8]. With the increasing presence of cement manufacturing, the industry poses as one of the most significant CO2 emitters. Evaluating the risk factors of its spillover impact on public health is inevitable.

In Nigeria, limestone and marble are the main minerals of cement production. The conversion of this limestone into cement by heat releases carbon dioxide as a waste product. Ndefo [9] highlighted the deposits of these minerals and their carbon contents in various percentages, as shown in Figure 1. They are mainly composed of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium. Large deposits of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are observed in Calabar, Yandev, and Ukpilla, with Ewekoro having the largest deposit of Magnesium carbonate MgCO. The Nigerian Ministry of Mines and Steel Development reports a total limestone collection of approximately 2.3 TMT, of which 568 MMT stands as proven reserve and

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 3 of 16

11 MMT is used. Such deposits are endowed unadulterated, mainly across Ebonyi, Cross- River, and Benue cities with large industrial volumes among Gombe, Edo, Sokoto, and Ogun. Nonetheless, the largest enriched West African nation is Nigeria.

Table 2. Global cement production in selected countries (in metric tonnes) [6].

Countries 2018 2019

United States 87,000 89,000 Brazil 53,000 55,000 China 2,200,000 2,200,000 Egypt 81,200 76,000 India 300,000 320,000 Indonesia 75,200 74,000 Iran 58,000 60,000 Japan 55,300 54,000 Korea, Republic of 57,500 55,000 Russia 53,700 57,000 Turkey 72,500 51,000 Vietnam 90,200 95,000 Other Countries 870,000 900,000

Atmosphere 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

serve and 11 MMT is used. Such deposits are endowed unadulterated, mainly across Eb- onyi, Cross-River, and Benue cities with large industrial volumes among Gombe, Edo, Sokoto, and Ogun. Nonetheless, the largest enriched West African nation is Nigeria.

Figure 1. Percentage quantity of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate in Nigerian Lime- stone Deposit [9,10].

In 2018, data from World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that 9 in 10 persons breathe air containing excessive concentrations of toxins beyond the approved threshold stated by WHO. Africa and Asia amass the worst hit with 90% deaths from environmental air contaminants [11]. During cement production, soot molecules and dusty residues emerge extensively, thereby triggering respiratory ailments across humans. Diverse pul- monic-connected diseases are prevalent mostly to indigenous persons living around ce- ment industries. One cement factory releases massive atmospheric pollution. Given the voluminous process of producing cement, any certain potential environmental impact would be significant. As such, key players must prioritize atmospheric safety and decon- tamination since this undeniably plays an important role in achieving sustainable devel- opment (SDGs) goals 3, 6, 7, 11, 12 and 13.

Higher cement production and usage, switching fuel types, and dirt restriction mech- anization influence the quantity and cluster of environmental impurities. Numerous in- vestigations admit that manufacturing cement constitutes the broadest source for PM emission, accounting for 20–30%, which is 40% of the gross industrial emission [12]. Fur- thermore, making cement represents 5–6% of total artificial CO2 discharge, which accord- ing to the European Cement Association (ECA), yields at least half a ton of CO2 for a ton of cement produced. The most common pollutants responsible for air pollution are vola- tile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and hydrocarbons [13]. Decarbonation propels off about 50% of the emission, while fuel for kiln firing induces approximately 40% of pollu- tants. With projected manufacturing spike, cement makers are under pressure to lower or sustain CO2 outflows. Carbon-neutral biomass amidst other substitute fuels is seeing heightened usage in reducing certain cement-based CO2 discharge. Cement manufactur- ing entails severe health constraints; nearly every production phase adversely affects man and its environment. When dismantling rocks, particulate matter is dispersed into the at- mosphere, making it harmful to man. Moreover, this disintegration process causes noise pollution. The urban geography might likewise impact the gadgets adopted during this procedure [12,13]. Diverse equipment is recently employed to mitigate these adverse shortcomings. The equipment helps to limit dusty release, particularly across cement in- dustries. Gas trappers similarly capture extreme toxins, including sulphur, nitrogen ox- ide, and carbon dioxide, among others [11,13]. An essential constituent of gas for cement

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Calabar

Kwara

Yandev

Nkalagu

Sokoto

Igumale

Makurdi

Ewekoro

Total Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) (%) Total Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO) (%)

Figure 1. Percentage quantity of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate in Nigerian Limestone Deposit [9,10].

In 2018, data from World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that 9 in 10 persons breathe air containing excessive concentrations of toxins beyond the approved thresh- old stated by WHO. Africa and Asia amass the worst hit with 90% deaths from envi- ronmental air contaminants [11]. During cement production, soot molecules and dusty residues emerge extensively, thereby triggering respiratory ailments across humans. Di- verse pulmonic-connected diseases are prevalent mostly to indigenous persons living around cement industries. One cement factory releases massive atmospheric pollution. Given the voluminous process of producing cement, any certain potential environmental impact would be significant. As such, key players must prioritize atmospheric safety and decontamination since this undeniably plays an important role in achieving sustainable development (SDGs) goals 3, 6, 7, 11, 12 and 13.

Higher cement production and usage, switching fuel types, and dirt restriction mech- anization influence the quantity and cluster of environmental impurities. Numerous investigations admit that manufacturing cement constitutes the broadest source for PM emission, accounting for 20–30%, which is 40% of the gross industrial emission [12]. Fur- thermore, making cement represents 5–6% of total artificial CO2 discharge, which according

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 4 of 16

to the European Cement Association (ECA), yields at least half a ton of CO2 for a ton of cement produced. The most common pollutants responsible for air pollution are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), sulfur diox- ide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and hydrocarbons [13]. Decarbonation propels off about 50% of the emission, while fuel for kiln firing induces approximately 40% of pollutants. With projected manufacturing spike, cement makers are under pressure to lower or sustain CO2 outflows. Carbon-neutral biomass amidst other substitute fuels is seeing heightened usage in reducing certain cement-based CO2 discharge. Cement manufacturing entails severe health constraints; nearly every production phase adversely affects man and its environment. When dismantling rocks, particulate matter is dispersed into the atmosphere, making it harmful to man. Moreover, this disintegration process causes noise pollution. The urban geography might likewise impact the gadgets adopted during this procedure [12,13]. Diverse equipment is recently employed to mitigate these adverse shortcomings. The equipment helps to limit dusty release, particularly across cement industries. Gas trappers similarly capture extreme toxins, including sulphur, nitrogen oxide, and carbon dioxide, among others [11,13]. An essential constituent of gas for cement production is carbon dioxide (CO2). Heating calcium carbonate as the main ingredient produces lime, whereas carbon dioxide is given off as a chemical procedure. Cement production contributes 40% of global CO2 discharge; 60% of this CO2 volume comes from Portland cement [14,15], transforming limestone to lime. Sometimes, weighty metallic minerals spanning across mercury, chromium, thallium, and zinc have proximity to cement factories.

2. The Growing Nigerian Cement Industry

In recent years, the Nigerian cement industry has grown from import-dependency to an export-thriving epicentre within Africa. Cement is still a critical part of developing infrastructures globally as Nigerian cement producers continuously ramp up activities and expand into futuristic times. Given growing demands on infrastructural development, the National Integrated Infrastructure Master Plan (NIIMP) has projected a cumulative investment of approximately $3 trillion for a duration of 3 decades to construct and sustain infrastructures. The Ministry for Mines and Steel Development [16] estimates Nigeria’s highway system to be at 193,200 km, whereby 28,980 km is paved and about 85% is un- paved. This fact highlights the tremendous pressure on cement manufacturers in meeting the country’s demand for infrastructural development. Environmental health risks are of significant concern with the absence of a greener and more sustainable cement production in Nigeria. Juxtaposing the high degree of deficiency across the residential and structural facilities, particularly regarding the dire need for building properties and roadways, the capacity for expansion in this sector is evidently captivating. Additionally, the currently established amplitude has broadened to exceed projected demand as governmental strate- gies, including tax-relief schemes, banning imported cement, and similar enacted plans, have facilitated the rapid enlargement of capabilities for proprietary stakeholders [17]. In the medium term, Nigeria’s concrete industry indicates a likelihood for considerably sustained growth into the next generation, supported by unimpaired cement demand essentials as revealed by multiple measurable benchmarks. Projections place Nigerian cement consumption per capita at about 150 kg falling behind the worldwide average of 561 kg. Over the long term, several factors encompassing enhanced accessibility to construc- tion funds, increased civilization, larger populace, heightened infrastructural and housing investment, political consistency, and economic affluence determine the possibilities for boosting cement demand in Africa’s biggest country.

Besides other trivial functions of concrete for building, fascinations exist of using cement in constructing roads due to its resilience and easy preservation. More so, with the current population surge within Nigeria, it is believed that the government and increasing private sector will invest more in furnishing houses for bustling youths and working-class people, particularly inside and at the borders of urban cities. Consequently, to foster this movement, the federal government recently founded the Presidential Infrastructure De-

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 5 of 16

velopment Fund (PFID) in 2018, overseen by the Nigeria Sovereign Investment Authority (NSIA), whose goal is to narrow down the investment to electricity and road schemes nationwide. Hence, cement demand growth in Nigeria is expected to increase local ce- ment production over the following years. Nigeria’s cement sector exhibits oligopolistic tendencies with three major competitors as presented in Figure 2. Dangote Cement Plc, the indisputable biggest producer in Sub-Sahara and Nigeria with an installed capacity of 48.6 Mta and 32.3 Mta respectively, just recently added 3 million tonnes to its capacity in 2020 in the Obajana Cement Plant. Lafarge Africa Plc has a capacity of 10.5 million metric tonnes, accounting for a market share of 21.8%. BUA Group (recently sealed a merger of CCNN and Obu) has an 8.0 million metric tonnes capacity, accounting for a market share of 17.6%. Regardless of the current capabilities, the key manufacturing industrial giants are relentless in diversification strategies. According to their media sources, Dangote Cement has hinted at developing two extra 6MTPA factories in Edo city’s Okpella and Ogun state’s Itori. Additionally, BUA Group (CCNN) intends to extend its Sokoto’s Kalambaina Plant by supplementary 3MMTA. These plants are generally sited close to the raw material to cut the cost of transporting them. With limestone in its abundance, cement production in Nigeria is at its infant stage. Dangote cement further observes that Obajana’s accumulated limestone of 647 MT should stretch for approximately 45 years, Ibese’s 1150 MT should cover 78 years, and Gboko’s 133 MT should surpass three decades.

Atmosphere 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

private sector will invest more in furnishing houses for bustling youths and working-class people, particularly inside and at the borders of urban cities. Consequently, to foster this movement, the federal government recently founded the Presidential Infrastructure De- velopment Fund (PFID) in 2018, overseen by the Nigeria Sovereign Investment Authority (NSIA), whose goal is to narrow down the investment to electricity and road schemes nationwide. Hence, cement demand growth in Nigeria is expected to increase local ce- ment production over the following years. Nigeria’s cement sector exhibits oligopolistic tendencies with three major competitors as presented in Figure 2. Dangote Cement Plc, the indisputable biggest producer in Sub-Sahara and Nigeria with an installed capacity of 48.6 Mta and 32.3 Mta respectively, just recently added 3 million tonnes to its capacity in 2020 in the Obajana Cement Plant. Lafarge Africa Plc has a capacity of 10.5 million metric tonnes, accounting for a market share of 21.8%. BUA Group (recently sealed a merger of CCNN and Obu) has an 8.0 million metric tonnes capacity, accounting for a market share of 17.6%. Regardless of the current capabilities, the key manufacturing industrial giants are relentless in diversification strategies. According to their media sources, Dangote Ce- ment has hinted at developing two extra 6MTPA factories in Edo city’s Okpella and Ogun state’s Itori. Additionally, BUA Group (CCNN) intends to extend its Sokoto’s Kalambaina Plant by supplementary 3MMTA. These plants are generally sited close to the raw mate- rial to cut the cost of transporting them. With limestone in its abundance, cement produc- tion in Nigeria is at its infant stage. Dangote cement further observes that Obajana’s accu- mulated limestone of 647 MT should stretch for approximately 45 years, Ibese’s 1150 MT should cover 78 years, and Gboko’s 133 MT should surpass three decades.

Figure 2. Major Cement Plants in Nigeria.

Over time, Nigerian cement manufacturers have used domestic cinder and proxy combustibles such as LPFO (Low Pour Fuel Oil—a byproduct of petroleum oil) as an al- ternative to gas in powering their plants. Dangote Cement, for instance, has tactically re- inforced its limekilns to function better with coals. This encompasses Ibese and Obajana industries, which were formerly structured to operate on gas, whereas Benue’s factory previously used LPFO. Dangote group also indicated tendencies to utilize its numerous

Figure 2. Major Cement Plants in Nigeria.

Over time, Nigerian cement manufacturers have used domestic cinder and proxy combustibles such as LPFO (Low Pour Fuel Oil—a byproduct of petroleum oil) as an alternative to gas in powering their plants. Dangote Cement, for instance, has tactically reinforced its limekilns to function better with coals. This encompasses Ibese and Obajana industries, which were formerly structured to operate on gas, whereas Benue’s factory previously used LPFO. Dangote group also indicated tendencies to utilize its numerous damaged tyres as energy sources. Similarly, Lafarge Africa Plc has heightened its usage of substitute power, including coal and industrial waste.

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 6 of 16

3. Cement Production on Climate Change and Global Warming

As highlighted by USGS, global warming is one of many characteristics of climate change. Global warming is the rise in global temperatures largely due to escalating concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases. Similarly, climate change involves the gradual alteration of climatic actions for an extended period [18]. Increased urbanization and industrialization have led to higher cement production in Nigeria as cement plants have substantially ramped up their output, triggering greater CO2 emissions into the air. Ndefo [9] highlighted that using the ratio of one cement to carbon dioxide tonne, Nigeria would manufacture beyond 25 MMT of cement, thereby inducing 25 MMT of CO2 yearly. This has eventually drawn the country into global warming and weather crisis. Developing nations like Nigeria lack sufficient preparation for global warming consequences, which is already evident and glaring for its citizens. Notwithstanding that Africa’s largest country has fortunately not encountered severe atmospheric-spurred dis- aster, occurrences are constantly seen in tremendous heat waves around major industrial cities; increased greenhouse gases and particulate matter; PMs from cement dust pollution; and high precipitations leading to flooding and gully erosion [14] in Lagos, Jigawa, Edo, and Anambra States. The atmospheric CO2 before industrialization was about 200 ppm, but it is presently estimated to surpass 800 ppm as the 21st century reaches its end, causing great concerns. The cement sector is a principal contributor to weather disruptions be- cause its manufacturing operations emit enormous CO2, which is primarily unrecoverable and reusable [19,20]. Wilson & Law (2007) [21] further describe cement production as a greenhouse double whammy, by which the conversion of limestone to cement produces carbon dioxide; the fossil fuel used in heating it also produces carbon dioxide. In 2019, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency reported the increase in earthly CO2 discharge by a projected 350 MtCO2 or 0.9% to reach 38 GtCO2, such that China incurs the highest contribution with an increased 3.4% (or 380 MtCO2) and Nigeria’s emission at approximately 100 MtCO2 [22]. Table 3 highlights the atmospheric emissions from 1970 to 2019 in Nigeria. Cement manufacturing is estimated to supply 5–10% of worldwide anthropogenic CO2 outflow [23]. However, about 40% of CO2 emissions from dry cement manufacturing come from the combustion of fossil fuels [24] in the kiln process, while 50% comes from the roasting of limestone. The roasting (calcination) process liberates CO2 from limestone to give quick-lime: an essential resource in making cement clinkers. The process is energy-intensive and with extreme temperatures of about 1450 ◦C [25].

Table 3. Atmospheric emissions from 1970 to 2019 in Nigeria.

Years Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Emission Methane (CH4)

Emission Nitrous Oxide, (N2O)

Emission Greenhouse Gases (F-Gases):

(HFCs, PFCs and SF6) Emission

1970 0.03 130 12 –

1971 0.04 190 12 –

1972 0.06 230 12 –

1973 0.07 280 13 –

1974 0.08 350 14 –

1975 0.06 260 14 –

1976 0.08 290 14 –

1977 0.07 250 15 –

1978 0.07 240 15 –

1979 0.10 370 16 –

1980 0.09 310 16 –

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 7 of 16

Table 3. Cont.

Years Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Emission Methane (CH4)

Emission Nitrous Oxide, (N2O)

Emission Greenhouse Gases (F-Gases):

(HFCs, PFCs and SF6) Emission

1981 0.07 230 16 0.1

1982 0.07 200 17 0.1

1983 0.07 200 17 0.1

1984 0.07 210 17 0.1

1985 0.07 220 18 0.1

1986 0.07 220 18 0.1

1987 0.07 200 18 0.1

1988 0.08 230 19 0.2

1989 0.08 240 19 0.2

1990 0.07 240 19 0.2

1991 0.08 250 20 0.2

1992 0.09 250 20 0.1

1993 0.09 260 21 0.1

1994 0.08 250 21 0.1

1995 0.09 260 22 –

1996 0.10 280 22 0.1

1997 0.10 250 23 0.1

1998 0.09 210 24 0.2

1999 0.09 190 24 0.2

2000 0.10 190 25 0.3

2001 0.11 200 25 0.3

2002 0.10 170 26 0.4

2003 0.11 190 26 0.5

2004 0.10 190 26 0.6

2005 0.10 190 29 0.7

2006 0.09 180 28 0.8

2007 0.08 180 28 0.8

2008 0.09 170 29 0.9

2009 0.08 170 29 1.0

2010 0.09 180 30 1.1

2011 0.10 180 32 1.2

2012 0.09 190 32 1.3

2013 0.09 180 32 1.3

2014 0.09 180 32 1.4

2015 0.09 180 34 1.5

2016 0.09 180 35 1.6

2017 0.09 180 36 1.7

2018 0.10 180 37 1.7

2019 0.10 180 38 1.8

Unit = 109 kg CO2 eq (1 million metric tonnes). CO2 equivalent is calculated with Global Warming Potentials (GWP-100) of the Fourth IPCC Assessment report (2017). Graphical illustration in Supplementary Data.

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 8 of 16

Globally, increasing industrialization has led to a rise in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere to about 0.03% (570 ppm) [26]. To maintain the CO2 concentration below 550 ppm by 2050, Cement Technology Roadmap has recommended cutting CO2 emissions to 30–60%, thereby mitigating global warming [27]. Cement plants are a major source of CO2 emissions due to the high CO2 concentration in cement kiln flue gas [26]. However, with the advent of carbon capture and storage (CCS), cement manufacturers have discov- ered a system of reducing the role of fossil fuel emissions in global warming by capturing and storing CO2 directly from the atmosphere [28]. Together with the underground gasifi- cation combined cycle (UGCC), CCS is a viable method for exploiting clean limestone and coal [29]. Techniques of pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel combustion are widely used for carbon dioxide capturing in the cement industry [30].

The manufacturing sector and agricultural sector have contributed significantly to the Nigerian Gross National Product. The active role of these sectors makes it evident that even a minor climate deterioration can cause harmful socioeconomic consequences. In the cement industry, policies to reduce the combustion of fossil fuels like carbon and to adopt renewable energy sources have only been successful at the paper stage as there is poor or no acceptance of these methods. Nigeria is the biggest cement manufacturer across West Africa, with increasing production demands. Its cement production utilizes a large volume of unprocessed input and combustibles (biodiesel, crude oil, gasoline, coal, among other factory wastage) and thermal and electrical power for its production [31–33], playing a major role in environmental variations and global warming as a result of its raw material use and processing [34]. Although cement production causes noise pollution, which is detrimental to man’s health, the main environmental issue associated with its production is the formation of heavy metals as seen in wastewater and solid waste such as carbon-dioxide (CO2) emission, VOCs, fly ash, dust, and particulate matters (PMs) [31]. Sadly, solutions for the climate change and global warming challenges do not yield intense renowned impact since they are far too complex for political discussions. The looming effects of climate variabilities now threaten stable food supply in some regions of the country. In the arid zones of northern Nigeria, droughts are getting worse, and the southern part is getting wetter with growing climate uncertainty. A major influence of weather changes and global warming is weather unpredictability. This is so conspicuous as some areas in Lagos and Ogun State were said to have experienced an uncommon rainfall with thunderstorms in the early days of 2021, drawing attention to the fact that these regions record the highest number of industries in Nigeria. The challenge of climate unpredictability makes subsistence farming difficult [14]. Research has shown that the leading cause of environmental disruptions is the continuously rising CO2 levels from emitting biomass, concrete production, and desertification, which are the major causes of CO2. As of 2020, the current trend of CO2 emission in Nigeria from cement production is still on the rise. As presented in Figure 3, carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions in Nigeria have been growing steadily from 1970 to date. The earth’s CO2 level will keep escalating owing to high demand for concrete (cement production), incessantly combusting fossil fuels, land-use adaptations, and particularly deforestation.

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 9 of 16Atmosphere 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

Figure 3. Carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions from 1970 to 2019 in Nigeria and other countries.

4. Impacts of Water Pollution from Cement Production on Public Health Anthropogenic activities have depleted the quality of human’s most abundant re-

sources. Water contamination through industrialization and urbanization in Nigeria is leading the cause of water-related conundrums [35,36]. Globally, uncontaminated drink- able water is inaccessible to billion(s) of persons [37], leading to 2.2 million deaths yearly in developing nations [38]. Nigeria is naturally endowed in abundance with diverse cate- gories of drinking water such as groundwater, rainwater, and surface water, but it has a longstanding challenge in water quality problems [39]. Approximately 66.3 million Nige- rians lack access to clean drinking water, which is largely attributed to the pollution from cement production [40], oil exploration [41], agricultural activities [42], and industrial or mining activities [43], etc. Water contamination through cement production in Nigeria has facilitated toxins accumulation in aquatic lives, causing a health risk to human consumers. In past years, the constant epidemic of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, and gastroenteritis in Nigeria has been linked to polluted water [36]. Cement in- dustries are largely responsible for releasing effluents into water bodies [24,44,45]. In a study by [46], clear water quality deterioration was discovered in Oinyi river, Kogi State, owing to cement factories’ unhygienic water effects. Collected analyzed samples along the

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China United States European Union

France Germany Italy

Netherlands Poland United Kingdom

India Russia Japan

Nigeria

Figure 3. Carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions from 1970 to 2019 in Nigeria and other countries.

4. Impacts of Water Pollution from Cement Production on Public Health

Anthropogenic activities have depleted the quality of human’s most abundant re- sources. Water contamination through industrialization and urbanization in Nigeria is leading the cause of water-related conundrums [35,36]. Globally, uncontaminated drink- able water is inaccessible to billion(s) of persons [37], leading to 2.2 million deaths yearly in developing nations [38]. Nigeria is naturally endowed in abundance with diverse cate- gories of drinking water such as groundwater, rainwater, and surface water, but it has a longstanding challenge in water quality problems [39]. Approximately 66.3 million Nigeri- ans lack access to clean drinking water, which is largely attributed to the pollution from cement production [40], oil exploration [41], agricultural activities [42], and industrial or mining activities [43], etc. Water contamination through cement production in Nigeria has facilitated toxins accumulation in aquatic lives, causing a health risk to human consumers. In past years, the constant epidemic of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, and gastroenteritis in Nigeria has been linked to polluted water [36]. Cement industries are largely responsible for releasing effluents into water bodies [24,44,45]. In a study by [46], clear water quality deterioration was discovered in Oinyi river, Kogi State, owing to cement factories’ unhygienic water effects. Collected analyzed samples along the watercourse highlighted the following results: turbidity, temperature, biochemical and

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 10 of 16

chemical oxygen demand, colour, pH, depth, conductivity, and total suspended solids as 14–22.7 NTU, 24 ◦C to 27 ◦C, 2.05–2.89 mg/L, 17.19 ± 0.15 mg/L, 3.87 ± 0.159 Pt.Co, 6.8 to 7.26, 0.23 to 0.35 m, 106.0 to 211.7 µS/cm, 45–54 mg/L, respectively, but at the exit point of the industrial effluents; turbidity, nitrite, nitrate, maximum conductivity, total dissolved solids, and total suspended solids are 22.7 NTU, 0.09 mg/L, 0.006 mg/L, 211.7 µS/cm, 108.8 mg/L, and 54 mg/L respectively [46].

5. Impacts of Air Pollution from Cement Production on Public Health

Cement factories and limestone-induced atmospheric pollution are seen to evoke severe occupational health hazards and adverse effects on crops, buildings, and persons residing in the vicinity of these industries [47]. Producing concrete consumes enormous power, often through coal, which consequently emits carbon dioxide in alarming amounts depending on the manufacturing procedure and fuel employed as well as its associated effectiveness. The highly critical aftermath of producing cement is the dirt emitted during mining, processing, packaging, storing, and transporting. Egbe et al. (2019); Ibanga et al. (2008); and Maina et al. (2013) [48–50] highlighted that products and raw materials from cement production plants are significant sources of particulate matter such as (PM), NOx, CO2, SO2, VOCs, Ozone (O3), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and highly radioactive elements like Radon. Carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons ob- tained from incomplete conflagration [1] in the kiln cause perilous healthy impacts by lessening oxygen transmission to bodily parts and ligaments, in addition to negatively impacting brainwaves and cardiorespiratory conditions. Furthermore, CO aids fume gen- eration (bottom-ground ozone), which triggers breathing difficulties [13,51]. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) released during fuel combustion causes multiple health-related challenges. It adversely affects the atmosphere through global warming, visual impairment, acid rain, lung disease such as asthma, and lung tissue damage [13,52]. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) from fuel sources and the type of raw materials used in cement production could complicate respiration and exacerbate prevailing lung and health-associated ailments. Moreover, the kiln type used in concrete production influences the volume of SO2 that enters the air [53]. Emitted SO2 is oxidised into SO3 in the atmosphere, forming sulfate aerosols or acid deposition on surface soil and water [54]. Radon (Rn), a radioactive gas derived from geologic materials, has been linked to an increased risk of developing lung cancer when inhaled in large quantities from concrete or cement [55]. Cement production at various stages is accompanied by the release of dust [56]. Particulate matter (PM) discharged from concrete industries lie between 0.025 to 5 µm in radius [48,57]. Particle sizes of particulate matter play a role in its effects [58]. PM2.5 is responsible for several people’s wellness shortcomings relative to other PM dimensions [59]. Sizes within 10 to 2.5 µm enter the higher region of respiratory organs, whereas lower PM sinks into the blood and lungs. World Bank noted in 2015 that 94% of Nigeria’s populace is vulnerable to environmental contamination levels that outpace the WHO threshold [60]. It was further reported in 2017 that the volume of immature deaths owing to Nigerian atmospheric PM2.5 stood at 49,100, and children below 5 have the greatest susceptibility, mainly because of lesser respiratory contagion, representing approximately 60% of overall PM2.5-induced deaths [61]. Globally, subjection to environmental dust PM2.5 has caused around 2.9 million premature deaths, 9% of aggregate deaths worldwide and 80,000 premature deaths in West Africa for 2017 [61]. This issue is worse within Nigeria, with the largest regional mass of PM2.5-associated deaths, especially in Lagos, the nation’s industrial hub. From Figure 4, the assessment of PM2.5 in Lagos at 68 µg/m3 exceeds the World Health Organization’s benchmark for the concentration of 10 µg/m3, placing Nigeria’s industrial capital closely among the most polluted cities. Figure 5 illustrates the state of cement production in Nigeria.

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 11 of 16 Atmosphere 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Figure 4. Annual mean concentration of PM2.5 (µg/m3) in various cities [61].

Figure 5. Pollution from cement production in Nigeria. Source: [62].

Abimbola et al. (2007) [63] evaluated past hospital documentations and the present well-being of locals and revealed the increasing contagion of sickness connected to huge alloy fatality, generated by cement dust from factories, posing a threat to future habita- tion. The research considered the quantities of selected heavy metals in Figure 6 as: soils [Ni (13.0–17 ppm), Cd (0.5–1.1 ppm), Zn (43–69 ppm), Cu (22–35 ppm), Pb (28–49 ppm)], shale [Cu (2.0–11 ppm), Pb (17–22 ppm), Cd (0.3–1.1 ppm), Ni (3.0–18 ppm), dusts [Cd (0.5–0.7 ppm), Zn (17–147 ppm)], Cu (2–16 ppm), Pb (32–52 ppm), Ni (2–17 ppm)], Zn (5– 152 ppm), limestone [Cu (3.0–11 ppm), Ni (3.0–8.0 ppm), Cd (n.d.-1.7 ppm), Zn (7.0–53 ppm), and Pb (42–48 ppm)].

7 12

15 17

26 28

45 57 57

64 68

73 76

143

New York, USA

Los Angeles, USA

Istanbul, Turkey

Tokyo, Japan

Seoul, South Koera

Bangkok, Thailand

Shanghai, China

Wuhan, China

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Mumbai, India

Lagos, Nigeria

Beijing, China

Cairo, Egypt

Delhi, India

Figure 4. Annual mean concentration of PM2.5 (µg/m 3) in various cities [61].

Atmosphere 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Figure 4. Annual mean concentration of PM2.5 (µg/m3) in various cities [61].

Figure 5. Pollution from cement production in Nigeria. Source: [62].

Abimbola et al. (2007) [63] evaluated past hospital documentations and the present well-being of locals and revealed the increasing contagion of sickness connected to huge alloy fatality, generated by cement dust from factories, posing a threat to future habita- tion. The research considered the quantities of selected heavy metals in Figure 6 as: soils [Ni (13.0–17 ppm), Cd (0.5–1.1 ppm), Zn (43–69 ppm), Cu (22–35 ppm), Pb (28–49 ppm)], shale [Cu (2.0–11 ppm), Pb (17–22 ppm), Cd (0.3–1.1 ppm), Ni (3.0–18 ppm), dusts [Cd (0.5–0.7 ppm), Zn (17–147 ppm)], Cu (2–16 ppm), Pb (32–52 ppm), Ni (2–17 ppm)], Zn (5– 152 ppm), limestone [Cu (3.0–11 ppm), Ni (3.0–8.0 ppm), Cd (n.d.-1.7 ppm), Zn (7.0–53 ppm), and Pb (42–48 ppm)].

7 12

15 17

26 28

45 57 57

64 68

73 76

143

New York, USA

Los Angeles, USA

Istanbul, Turkey

Tokyo, Japan

Seoul, South Koera

Bangkok, Thailand

Shanghai, China

Wuhan, China

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Mumbai, India

Lagos, Nigeria

Beijing, China

Cairo, Egypt

Delhi, India

Figure 5. Pollution from cement production in Nigeria. Source: [62].

Abimbola et al. (2007) [63] evaluated past hospital documentations and the present well-being of locals and revealed the increasing contagion of sickness connected to huge alloy fatality, generated by cement dust from factories, posing a threat to future habita- tion. The research considered the quantities of selected heavy metals in Figure 6 as: soils [Ni (13.0–17 ppm), Cd (0.5–1.1 ppm), Zn (43–69 ppm), Cu (22–35 ppm), Pb (28–49 ppm)], shale [Cu (2.0–11 ppm), Pb (17–22 ppm), Cd (0.3–1.1 ppm), Ni (3.0–18 ppm), dusts [Cd (0.5–0.7 ppm), Zn (17–147 ppm)], Cu (2–16 ppm), Pb (32–52 ppm), Ni (2–17 ppm)], Zn (5–152 ppm), limestone [Cu (3.0–11 ppm), Ni (3.0–8.0 ppm), Cd (n.d.-1.7 ppm), Zn (7.0–53 ppm), and Pb (42–48 ppm)].

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 12 of 16Atmosphere 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

Figure 6. Average levels of heavy metals around Sagamu cement area (in ppm).

The study further proposed that the voluminous metallic concentration in the soil and soot emanated from unprocessed inputs adopted by cement makers and resultant factory emissions. A study performed by A. N. (2012) [64] revealed that 30,435 disease cases were linked to air pollution in Rivers State, and 61 of its patients were reported dead. Prevalent diseases associated with the cases include: cerebrospinal meningitis (CSM), pul- monary tuberculosis, upper respiratory tract infection (URT), pneumonia, measles, per- tussis, and chronic bronchitis. The environmental air quality was also reported to be far worse than the WHO’s standard, and unsafe, posing health threats to residents (particu- lates = 10 ppm/year, SO2 = 1 ppm/year, Pb = 0.1115 ppm/year, NOx = 2.55 ppm/year, VOCx = 82.78 ppm/year). This study implied that air pollution largely from industrial emission has negatively forthrightly impacted public welfare. The aftermath of Ewekoro’s kiln im- purities was closely observed by Olaleye & Oluyemi (2010) [65] at some aquatic receptor places, and a considerable concentration of atmospheric deposition rates (ADRs) and total suspended particulates (TSPs) was observed in the cement plant. The TSP and ADR con- centrations were significantly more (p < 0.05) amidst dryer weather compared to humid periods. Furthermore, in the study, airborne particulates contain substantially greater con- centration (p < 0.05) of trace elements such as lead (Pb+), zinc (Zn2+), and manganese (Mn2+). Similarly, Ugwuanyi & Obi (2002) [66] examined the adverse health consequences of en- vironmental contaminants from cement industries on small-scale peasants in Nigeria’s Benue State. The research observed data from hospitals and correlated them with emis- sions from the vicinity of the plant. Diseases predominant amongst the community in- clude allergic asthma allergies, impaired eyesight, chronic bronchitis, upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), lung inflammation, and pulmonic tuberculosis. He concluded that the measurable atmospheric effects of hospitalized persons relative to sicknesses suggest that pollutants have begun dampening living quality and people’s productivities.

A.J. (2013) [67] observed that the particulate matter concentrations from Obajana ce- ment plant measured by its Health and Safety Department using the SKC portable partic- ulate sampler at several industry sites for years 2010 and 2011 were 260 µg/Nm3 and 500 µg/Nm3, respectively. Furthermore, Ugwuanyi & Obi (2002) [66] observed that suspended particulate matter at Benue Cement Company, Gboko was at 905 µg/Nm3, far exceeding both national and international standards. A study by Temitope & Ogochukwu Elizabeth (2014) [68] discovered the contamination of hawked food around a cement factory with pathogenic bacteria. The study further revealed the presence of a high microbial load of

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Avg. Cd

Avg. Pb

Avg. Zn

Avg. Cu

Avg. Ni

Soil Dust Shale Limestone

Figure 6. Average levels of heavy metals around Sagamu cement area (in ppm).

The study further proposed that the voluminous metallic concentration in the soil and soot emanated from unprocessed inputs adopted by cement makers and resultant factory emissions. A study performed by A. N. (2012) [64] revealed that 30,435 disease cases were linked to air pollution in Rivers State, and 61 of its patients were reported dead. Prevalent diseases associated with the cases include: cerebrospinal meningitis (CSM), pulmonary tuberculosis, upper respiratory tract infection (URT), pneumonia, measles, pertussis, and chronic bronchitis. The environmental air quality was also reported to be far worse than the WHO’s standard, and unsafe, posing health threats to residents (partic- ulates = 10 ppm/year, SO2 = 1 ppm/year, Pb = 0.1115 ppm/year, NOx = 2.55 ppm/year, VOCx = 82.78 ppm/year). This study implied that air pollution largely from industrial emission has negatively forthrightly impacted public welfare. The aftermath of Ewekoro’s kiln impurities was closely observed by Olaleye & Oluyemi (2010) [65] at some aquatic re- ceptor places, and a considerable concentration of atmospheric deposition rates (ADRs) and total suspended particulates (TSPs) was observed in the cement plant. The TSP and ADR concentrations were significantly more (p < 0.05) amidst dryer weather compared to humid periods. Furthermore, in the study, airborne particulates contain substantially greater concentration (p < 0.05) of trace elements such as lead (Pb+), zinc (Zn2+), and manganese (Mn2+). Similarly, Ugwuanyi & Obi (2002) [66] examined the adverse health consequences of environmental contaminants from cement industries on small-scale peasants in Nigeria’s Benue State. The research observed data from hospitals and correlated them with emissions from the vicinity of the plant. Diseases predominant amongst the community include allergic asthma allergies, impaired eyesight, chronic bronchitis, upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), lung inflammation, and pulmonic tuberculosis. He concluded that the measurable atmospheric effects of hospitalized persons relative to sicknesses suggest that pollutants have begun dampening living quality and people’s productivities.

A.J. (2013) [67] observed that the particulate matter concentrations from Obajana cement plant measured by its Health and Safety Department using the SKC portable partic- ulate sampler at several industry sites for years 2010 and 2011 were 260 µg/Nm3 and 500 µg/Nm3, respectively. Furthermore, Ugwuanyi & Obi (2002) [66] observed that suspended particulate matter at Benue Cement Company, Gboko was at 905 µg/Nm3, far exceeding both national and international standards. A study by Temitope & Ogochukwu Elizabeth (2014) [68] discovered the contamination of hawked food around a cement factory with pathogenic bacteria. The study further revealed the presence of a high microbial load of bac- terial pathogens, namely Salmonella sp., Shigella sp., Bacillus sp., Klebsiella sp., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas sp., Proteus sp., Micrococcus sp., Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp.,

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 13 of 16

Streptococcus pyogenes, etc. in hawked food sold around a cement factory in Lokoja. The high microbial load in the food ranges from 6.2–3.3 × 105 cfu/g, showing the likelihood of incidence of these organisms dispersed by dust from the cement plant onto the hawked food. Other research has indicated the clustering of suspended PMs and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) exceeding guidelines in stations around Cement depots in Port Harcourt. Using a collection of impingers possessing bubbler tools and automated gas monitors, the out- come of concentrated SPM for Atlas cement fluctuated within 678.9–996.2 µg/m3 and between 7.8–20.0 µg/m3 for NO2. For Eagle cement, SPM concentrations were extremely varied between 607.7–23,198.5 µg/m3 and 27.45–140.7 µg/m3 for NO2. This gives rise to damaging environmental and serious public unhealthiness distress as concrete SPM toxins emanate from cement unpacking, transportation, storing, and stacking onto carriage vans [69]. Otaru et al. (2013) [70] indicated that the simulated safety distance for human settlement is 7 km from a cement production plant, having utilized the Gaussian predictive model to measure the levels of particulate dissemination. This has negatively affected the populace around a cement plant as they are forced into settlement migration for greener pasture. The simulated outcomes agreed with experimental results at an average value of 92% within a Gaussian distance of 200–2000 m. These simulated findings reveal that the atmospheric cluster covering around 1.5–4.5 km from the heap exceeds the WHO yearly average yardstick of 260 µg/m3, and 2–4 km from the stockpile likewise surpassed the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Environmental criterion annual average of 500 µg/m3.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, this work reviews the effect of air and water pollutants from cement production on humans, plants, and its environment. There is satisfactory evidence to link the negative health impact of cement production on public health. Cement manufacturing involves the significant production of SO2, NOx, and CO, which are connected to adverse health effects on humans. Sensitive populations such as infants, the aged, and persons having lung ailments including asthmatics, emphysema, or bronchitis, are seen to be most affected. Consequently, in addressing this challenge, growing interests in enacting carbon capture, usage, and storage in the cement industry are expected to alleviate the negative environmental impact of cement production. Still, no carbon capture technology is yet to achieve commercialization in the cement industry. Nonetheless, huge advancement has been made in recent years with the advent of vital research in sorption-enhanced water gas shift, underground gasification combined cycle, ammonium hydroxide solution, and the microbial-induced synthesis of calcite for CO2 capture and storage, all considered sustainable and feasible in cement production.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10 .3390/atmos12091111/s1, Figure S1: Carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions from 1970 to 2019 in Nigeria and other countries, Figure S2: Carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions from 1970 to 2019 in Nigeria [22], Figure S3: Methane (CH4) emissions from 1970 to 2019 in Nigeria [22], Figure S4: Nitrous Oxide Emissions (N2O) from 1970 to 2019 in Nigeria [22], Figure S5: Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases (F-gases): HFCs, PFCs and SF6 Emission in Nigeria [22].

Author Contributions: The authors declare no conflict of interest Conceptualization: D.O., K.B.; Methodology, software, and validation: M.-A.E.; Writing—Original draft: M.-A.E., J.L.; Writing— review and editing: M.-A.E. and K.B.; Supervision: D.O. The authors disclose that no conflicting personal or financial interests exist which could interfere with this research’s findings in any way. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.

Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1111 14 of 16

Acknowledgments: The authors wholeheartedly appreciate the Chancellor and Managerial team of Covenant University for making this medium accessible for research publications.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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47. Parithielamvazhuthi, R. Analysis of Air Pollutant Emission and Control System in Cement Industries around Ariyalur District. 2013. Available online: www.ijsr.net (accessed on 13 January 2021).

48. Ibanga, I.J.; Umoh, N.B.; Iren, O.B. Effects of Cement Dust on Soil Chemical Properties in the Calabar Environment, Southeastern Nigeria. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2008, 39, 551–558. [CrossRef]

49. Maina, H.M.; Egila, J.N.; Nkafamiya, I.I.; Shagal, M.H. Impact of cement dust deposition on the elemental composition of soils in the vicinity of Ashaka cement factory, Nigeria. Int. Res. J. Agric. Sci. Soil Sci. 2013, 3, 66–74.

50. Egbe, E.R.; Nsonwu-Anyanwu, A.C.; Offor, S.J.; Opara Usoro, C.A.; Etukudo, M.H. Heavy metal content of the soil in the vicinity of the united cement factory in Southern Nigeria. J. Adv. Environ. Health Res. 2019, 7, 122–130. [CrossRef]

51. Asubiojo, O.I.; Aina, P.O.; Oluwole, A.F.; Arshed, W.; Akanle, O.A.; Spyrou, N.M. Effects of cement production on the elemental composition of soils in the neighborhood of two cement factories. Water Air Soil Pollut. 1991, 57, 819–828. [CrossRef]

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52. Wufem, M.B.; Ibrahim, A.Q.; Maina, H.M.; Nangbes, J.G.; Nvau, J.B. Speciation of Some Heavy Metals in Soils Around a Cement Factory in Gombe State, Nigeria. Available online: http://repository.plasu.ngren.edu.ng:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/346 (accessed on 12 January 2021).

53. Hua, S.; Tian, H.; Wang, K.; Zhu, C.; Gao, J.; Ma, Y.; Xue, Y.; Wang, Y.; Duan, S.; Zhou, J. Atmospheric emission inventory of hazardous air pollutants from China’s cement plants: Temporal trends, spatial variation characteristics and scenario projections. Atmos. Environ. 2016, 128, 1–9. [CrossRef]

54. Zhang, T.; Wu, C.; Li, B.; Wang, J.; Ravat, R.; Chen, X.; Wei, J.; Yu, Q. Linking the SO2 emission of cement plants to the sulfur characteristics of their limestones: A study of 80 NSP cement lines in China. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 220, 200–211. [CrossRef]

55. Amin, R.M. A study of radon emitted from building materials using solid state nuclear track detectors. J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci. 2015, 8, 516–522. [CrossRef]

56. Abdul-Wahab, S.A. Impact of fugitive dust emissions from cement plants on nearby communities. Ecol. Model. 2006, 195, 338–348. [CrossRef]

57. Gbadebo, A.; Amos, A. Assessment of Radionuclide Pollutants in Bedrocks and Soils from Ewekoro Cement Factory, Southwest Nigeria. Asian J. Appl. Sci. 2010, 3, 135–144. [CrossRef]

58. Cassee, F.R.; Héroux, M.-E.; Gerlofs-Nijland, M.E.; Kelly, F.J. Particulate matter beyond mass: Recent health evidence on the role of fractions, chemical constituents and sources of emission. Inhal. Toxicol. 2013, 25, 802–812. [CrossRef]

59. Schlesinger, R.B. The Health Impact of Common Inorganic Components of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) in Ambient Air: A Critical Review. Inhal. Toxicol. 2007, 19, 811–832. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

60. World Bank. A Plea for Action against Pollution in Nigeria. 2015. Available online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ feature/2015/06/16/in-lagos-nigeria-a-plea-for-action-against-pollution (accessed on 13 January 2021).

61. Croitoru, L.; Chang, J.C.; Kelly, A. The Cost of Air Pollution in Lagos. 2020. Available online: https://openknowledge.worldbank. org/handle/10986/33038 (accessed on 12 January 2021).

62. Emetere, M.; Dania, E. Short review on air pollution from cement factories. J. Physics Conf. Ser. 2019, 1299, 012033. [CrossRef] 63. Abimbola, A.F.; Kehinde-Phillips, O.O.; Olatunji, A. The Sagamu cement factory, SW Nigeria: Is the dust generated a potential

health hazard? Environ. Geochem. Health 2007, 29, 163–167. [CrossRef] 64. Nwachukwu, A.N.; Chukwuocha, E.O.; Igbudu, O. A survey on the effects of air pollution on diseases of the people of Rivers

State, Nigeria. Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 6, 371–379. [CrossRef] 65. Olaleye, V.F.; Oluyemi, E.A. Effects of cement flue dusts from a Nigerian cement plant on air, water and planktonic quality.

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Stud. 2002, 59, 665–677. [CrossRef] 67. Otaru, A.J.; Odigure, J.O.; Okafor, J.O.; Abdulkareem, A.S. Investigation into Particulate Pollutant Concentration From A Cement

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Climate change

The knobs that control earth’s climate: • Atmospheric composition (greenhouse effect) • Amount of solar radiation (luminosity) • What parts of Earth get radiation (orbit) • Atmospheric and ocean circulation • Earth’s albedo (fraction of solar energy reflected off earth’s

surface) • Volcanoes • Plate tectonics

Let’s learn about the fourth and very important climate knob: Atmospheric and Ocean circulation.

Modern Insolation

As we learned in week 3, the amount of energy received from the sun per unit area varies with la:tude because of the curvature of the Earth’s surface. Modern insola:on is also affected by the shape of the Earth. This figure shows varia:on of incoming solar energy with la:tude. The energy from the Sun radiates outward in all direc:ons; however, by the :me the Sun’s rays reach Earth, they are essen:ally parallel to each other. This means that the flux of solar energy passing perpendicularly through the plane A-B on the right hand side of the figure will be the same at any point. For example, the three “beams” in the diagram are equal in solar flux when they pass through the plane A-B. Because of the curvature of Earth, however, when these beams reach the top of Earth’s atmosphere, the same amount of light is spread over a much larger area at the poles than the equator. Consequently, each unit area of surface receives propor:onately less energy at the higher la:tudes, and the incoming solar flux thus decreases from the equator toward the poles.

Zonal Radiation Balance

The solar radiation absorbed at the surface of the Earth follows the same general pattern as described in the previous slide, although the actual amount absorbed varies with cloud cover and atmospheric absorption. This equator-to-pole gradient in the energy absorbed at the surface exerts a primary control on Earth’s climate. The energy moves from a higher to lower (warm to cold) energy status. So the basic energy on Earth’s surface is shown in the left figure. The right figure shows this incoming energy gradient (orange solid curve) as a function of latitude (i.e. the amount averaged around each latitude band). As you might expect, the maximum absorbed solar energy is found in the tropics, and the available solar energy decreases rapidly as we move toward the poles. This gradient in absorbed solar energy is the single most important control on temperature! More energy is generally available at the equator than at the poles, so we can assume that temperatures should be highest in the tropics and lowest at high latitudes. The same figure also shows the latitudinal distribution of infrared radiation emitted from Earth to space (gray solid curve). The higher emissions in the tropics are a result of the high surface temperatures there. Please note that in the tropics, there is more incoming radiation than actual emission (blackbody radiation). In higher latitudes, there is more back radiation (gray solid curve) than incoming radiation.

The difference between the incoming solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial radiation is referred to as net radiation. In the right figure, note that the energy absorbed exceeds the energy emitted in the tropics (net radiation is positive); near the poles, the reverse is true (net radiation is negative). This distribution of available energy is a permanent feature of Earth’s climate system. The excess amount of energy is effectively transferred through air (wind) and water (ocean current). (continue)

(continued)

So, here is a fact: the energy is transferred from high (warm) to low (cool). Think of this as your cup of hot coffee becoming as cold as room temperature. The pole-to- equator gradient shown in both right and left figures seem to imply that the tropics should get cooler while the poles get progressively warmer. But clearly, this does not happen. Other processes must be operating to ensure an energy balance at each latitude!

Further reading: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7j.html

Convergence, divergence, and the Hadley circulation in the tropics

So, what is really happening in the atmosphere? The figure shows what is called “Hadley circulation” – vertical and horizontal air circulation within the troposphere.

Let’s begin with the heating in the tropics. The large solar input to the tropics heats the surface, which in turn heats the overlying air. When heated from below, air will rise by convection. The tropical air near the surface rises, creating a low-pressure region there. But we know from our everyday weather forecasts that air tends to move horizontally from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure (this is known as pressure gradient force: PGF). Thus, the rising air is replaced by surface air moving equatorward into the region of low pressure from regions of higher pressure. The merging of air masses that are moving inward toward a low-pressure region is called convergence. The converging air masses that meet at the tropics and rise make up the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The surface heating produces evaporation in addition to convection. As the convection air rises, it cools, and the evaporated water (water vapor) in the convecting column condenses to form clouds. As a consequence, the ITCZ is characterized by extensive areas of cloud cover and heavy precipitation.

(continue)

We can see the ITCZ from space – thick cloud coverage near the equator exists due to the convergence of warm moist air and the formation of cloud!

Convergence, divergence, and the Hadley circula4on in the tropics

(continued)

The top of the troposphere, located at about 12-15 km in the tropics, forms a barrier to further uplift (because, unlike within the troposphere, temperatures generally increase with height in the stratosphere, which prevents convection of air from below). The air that rises in the ITCZ, upon reaching this barrier, is forced to diverge poleward. Divergence, in this case, refers to the movement of air outward from a region in the atmosphere.

This poleward-moving air cools and subsides at about 30N and 30S latitude, creating a high-pressure region and replacing the air that is moving equator-ward at the surface. The air warms as it sinks, which prevents condensation from occurring and clouds from forming. As a result, these regions (of divergence) are characterized by clear skies and low rainfall amounts.

This pattern of air movement, with convergence occurring in the tropics and divergence and subsidence occurring some 30 degrees away in one large convection cell, is called Hadley circulation. This circulation pattern was named for George Hadley, the British meteorologist who first explained this phenomenon. The convection cells on either side of the equator, referred to as Hadley cells, represent the dominant north-south mode of circulation between 30N and 30S latitude.

Convergence, divergence, and the Hadley circulation in the tropics

Please note that the Hadley cells – and the ITCZ – are not continuous around the globe. The circulation takes place in individual cells of rising and subsiding air, and the pattern is further broken up by land-ocean contrasts. The ITCZ is most obvious in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and is readily observed in satellite images. The large-scale circulation, on the other hand, in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean is dominated by the monsoon, and will be described later this semester.

If you check an atlas, you will find that the areas of divergence coincide with some of the world’s largest deserts (e.g., the Sahara and Arabian deserts and the Great Australian Desert). A line of convective clouds marks the ITCZ just north of the equator. The clear areas to the north and south of the ITCZ mark the descending arms of the Hadley cells!

This is a 2-D view of the wind pattern shown in previous slides. There are broken up pieces of cells approximately at equator, 30N and 30S, and 60N and 60S, where surface winds move in opposite directions (due to Hadley circulation). Here is a possible model of the surface wind patterns on a globe. Surface winds blow out of the high-pressure zones at the poles and at 30N and 30S and blow toward the low-pressure zones at the equator and in the mid-latitudes.

But as we all know, this is not a representative pattern of the predominant wind (called prevailing wind). The actual pattern is more complicated as you see in the following slide…

Global Winds

Westerlies

Westerlies

90°N (North Pole)

90°S (South Pole)

60°N

30°N

0° (Equator)

30°S

60°S

Polar Easterlies

Polar Easterlies Polar Front

Polar Front

Trade Winds NE Trade Winds

Trade Winds SE Trade Winds

subtropical high "horse latitudes"

subtropical high "horse latitudes"

L

L

rising air masses

rising air masses

L

H

sinking air masses

sinking air masses

H

H

H

In reality, surface winds tend to blow in east-west directions as well. Indeed, the east-west motions are considerably greater than the north-south motions.

Why?

These strong east-west movements are caused by….

(continue)

Global Wind

• There must be a another force acting on the atmosphere.

It�s called the Coriolis Effect

• The Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) and the Coriolis Effect work together to make the winds blow

(continued)

… Coriolis Effect (Force)! So, the importance for global wind is to understand; 1) the pressure gradient force, which initiates the wind blowing, and 2) the Coriolis Effect, which impacts the direction of the wind.

1

2

merry-go-round

The person on the outside (#1) travels

faster than the person on the inside (#2)

How does Earth�s rotation cause the

Coriolis Effect?

East-west movements of surface winds are the result of the Coriolis effect. The Coriolis effect – named for Gaspard Gustav de Coriolis, the French mathematician who in 1835 proposed that the concept applies to surface winds – is the apparent tendency for a fluid (air or water) moving across Earth’s surface to be deflected from its straight-line path.

Coriolis Force, in relation to its effect, is only an apparent force due to the observer’s frame of reference, not a real force due to an identifiable source, such as the gravitational pull of a planet.

Viewed from the space, a north-south moving object appears to be deflected to

the east or west, because, just like riding on a marry-go-round, an object in the

equator travels the fastest (approximately 464 m/sec) and it slows down as we

move to the North (or South) Pole. Viewed from space, the same object is in

fact seen move in a straight line. The apparent curve that we see is the result of

our frame of reference – we normally view the object’s movement from within

the system.

The Coriolis effect applies to any object moving on a rotating body!

Suggested YouTube video:

Two hours later the Earth has rotated

through 30° of arc

30°W

60°W90°W120°W150°W180°W(180°E)

150°E

0 km/hr @ 90°

800 km/hr @ 60° (497 mi/hr)

1400 km/hr @ 30° (869 mi/hr)

1600 km/hr @ 0° (994 mi/hr)

initial directions (stippled arrows)

actual directions (black arrows)

clear arrows = distance Earth's surface rotated

in two hoursSouthern Hemisphere

Northern Hemisphere

equatorward motion, less deflection

West East

poleward motion; more deflection

poleward motion; more deflection

Earth�s Rotation and the Coriolis Effect

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The Coriolis effect is caused by the different veloci5es on the surface of the Earth at different la5tudes (just like a marry-go-round in previous slide). As a result, there is an apparent deflec5on of air masses, ocean currents and any object moving above the surface of the Earth.

Coriolis Deflection

Objects moving

towards the Poles

Importantly, due to the Earth’s rotation, objects deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, while objects deflect to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Two Forces Acting on the Atmosphere: PGF and Coriolis

As a summary, there are three important points on the Coriolis effect:

1) the Coriolis effect is caused by the Earth’s rotation; 2) large air masses and water masses are deflected to the right of the

direction of travel in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, and

3) there is a greater deflection towards the higher latitudes and no effect at the equator.

Global Winds

Westerlies

Westerlies

90°N (North Pole)

90°S (South Pole)

60°N

30°N

0° (Equator)

30°S

60°S

Polar Easterlies

Polar Easterlies Polar Front

Polar Front

Trade Winds NE Trade Winds

Trade Winds SE Trade Winds

subtropical high "horse latitudes"

subtropical high "horse latitudes"

L

L

rising air masses

rising air masses

L

H

sinking air masses

sinking air masses

H

H

H

This is the figure shown earlier. It shows the heat energy that the tropical ocean receives is transferred to the atmosphere at the equator. This warmed air rises, forming a low-pressure center, and winds blow towards the equator to replace this air. Due to the Coriolis effect, the surface wind is deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This Hadley cell circulation (and the Coriolis Force) drives the pattern of surface winds across the entire globe. This is called prevailing wind.

Global Winds

Almost the same image to the previous slide, but shown in 3D. It also shows the area of cloud formation at low-pressure region.

L Nor�easter over

the Northeast (3/31/97)

Storms are an important part of seasonal weather. Tropical cyclones (called hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean and typhoons in the Pacific Ocean) represent safety valves for the release of excess heat that builds up every year in the tropics and subtropics. These powerful seasonal storms transport much of this excess heat towards the cooler high latitudes. Cyclones are driven by the prevailing winds and steered by the Coriolis effect and other low and high pressure cells in their paths as they move to high latitudes.

The figure shows the path of Hurricane Irene in 2011. So, now we know that this hurricane trajectory is influenced by both the prevailing wind and the Coriolis effect (deflected to the right).

Tropical Cyclone in Southern Hemisphere

Tropical Cyclone Evans 2012

Of course, in the southern hemisphere, the Coriolis effect will pull wind to the opposite direc6on (90 degree to the le; as opposed to the right in the northern hemisphere). Therefore, topical cyclone in southern hemisphere rotates clock- wise!

Based on our learning thus far, when you see the Earth’s image from the space, you would notice that a line of convective clouds mark the ITCZ north of the equator, with clear areas to the north and south of the ITCZ.

Also, as we all know, the ocean, which covers over 70 % of the Earth surface, contributes to the Earth’s climate.

Global Winds

Westerlies

Westerlies

90°N (North Pole)

90°S (South Pole)

60°N

30°N

0° (Equator)

30°S

60°S

Polar Easterlies

Polar Easterlies Polar Front

Polar Front

Trade Winds NE Trade Winds

Trade Winds SE Trade Winds

subtropical high "horse latitudes"

subtropical high "horse latitudes"

L

L

rising air masses

rising air masses

L

H

sinking air masses

sinking air masses

H

H

H

Prevailing winds create a drag (wind stress) on the ocean surface, and some of this momentum is transferred to the water, causing it to move. As the surface water moves, friction among the water molecules causes the momentum to be transferred deeper into the water column, but energy is lost with increasing depth. As a result, the velocity of the current at the surface decreases with greater depth. Interestingly, not only the velocity, but the direction of the current changes with depth as well.

Ekman Transport Prevailing wind

Net transport of surface water All vectors (magnitude

and direction) of the Ekman spiral yield a net current direction that is ~90 degree to the prevailing wind. This composite current is the Ekman transport and it controls the motion of the surface ocean.

Such change in the direction is the result of the Coriolis Effect, which will affect moving water in the same way that it does the winds.

The Coriolis Effect causes the moving water to be deflected away from its direction of travel (to the right in the Northern Hemisphere). The surface current is deflected ~45 degree from the direction of the prevailing wind. A decrease in current speed, coupled with continuous Coriolis deflection with increasing depth cause an apparent spiral of moving water called the Ekman spiral. All vectors (magnitude and direction) of the Ekman spiral yield a net current direction that is ~90 degree to the prevailing wind. This composite current is the Ekman transport and it controls the motion of the surface ocean.

Trade Winds NE Trade Winds

Westerlies

Polar Easterlies

Trade Winds SE Trade Winds

Westerlies

Polar Easterlies

90°N (North Pole)

90°S (South Pole)

60°N

30°N

0° (Equator)

30°S

60°S

L

H

L

H

L

ITCZ

H

H

Ekman Transport ~90o to the

prevailing winds

to the right of the prevailing winds in the N. Hemisphere, to the left of the prevailing winds in the S. Hemisphere

The energy derived from the prevailing winds set the uppermost water column in mo7on. This movement of the upper water masses is the wind-driven circula.on, and the mo7on is in a direc7on to the right of the prevailing winds in the Northern Hemisphere and to the le< of the prevailing winds in the Southern Hemisphere.

Ekman transport causes near-surface waters to converge (pile-up) in subtropical regions thereby crea7ng subtle ”hills” on the ocean surface, which causes water to diverge (move apart) in subpolar regions and along the equator, crea7ng “depression”. These subtle highs and lows on the ocean surface are not visible because the relief is less than 2 meters (<6.6 <.) higher or lower than the average level of the sea over broad areas of the ocean (see more detail in next slide).

http://www.seos-project.eu/modules/oceancurrents/oceancurrents-c06-s02-p01.html

The prevailing winds provide the energy to drive the surface currents of the world ocean. Ekman transport and the Coriolis effect cause surface water to converge (“pile-up”) in the subtropics and diverge (move apart) at the equator and in subpolar waters. This creates subtle “hills” and “valleys” on the ocean surface of <2m (<6.6ft.). Gravity acts on the water to pull it back from these hills or into these valleys. This continuous tug-of-war between opposing forces results in a partial balance or equilibrium that keeps water moving around these subtle domes and valleys (= geostrophic flow/current).

Geostrophic currents flow around subtle �hills� and �valleys� on the ocean surface

Caused by prevailing winds and Colioris effect, resulting in Ekman transport on surface ocean, gyres (white solid arrows circling the ocean) are the large horizontal wind-driven current systems that circulate around the subtle domes and depressions on the ocean surface.

Ocean Circula,on

North Equatorial Current

This figure shows the surface water circulation pattern of the Earth. Let’s take a look of the Atlantic Ocean. The subtropical gyres, for instance, represent large circulation cells around the hills created by convergence in the subtropics. This subtropical gyre in the North Atlantic starts when the Trade Winds blow out of the northeast towards the Equator and initiate the westward-flowing North Equatorial Current. When this current encounters the Caribbean Islands and North America, the Coriolis effect deflects the current to the right (north) as the Gulf Stream.

As we learned in previous lecture, this surface ocean current is a wind driven surface current.

h"ps://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/00/88/d9/0088d94516b288d4bf347cebee62257d.jpg

Gulfstream

The Gulfstream is one of the strongest warm current in the world.

Please watch this suggested video: http://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/geo_animations/gulf-stream- meanders/meanders.html

http://theresilientearth.com/?q=content/conveyor-belt-model-broken

We learned about how the surface ocean moves, driven largely by the energy of the prevailing winds. There is a circulation of intermediate and deep (or bottom) water as well.

Suggested video; http://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/geo_animations/deep- water-circulation/deep-water-circulation.html

Because ocean circulation depends on temperature (density) and salinity, it is referred to as thermohaline circulation (thermo is Greek for “heat”, and haline comes from the Greek hals, for “salt”).

And shutting down or slowing down of this thermohaline circulation is speculated to have a significant impact on abrupt climate change…. (see next slide)

If you have watched “The Day A3er Tomorrow”, which is a Hollywood movie,

you may now no=ce that it uses this scien=fic reasoning of thermohaline

circula=on!

Check its official trailer “hDp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFLncfCvPeY”

J

Although the thermohaline circula=on hypothesis is accurate, unfortunately,

this movie is less realis=c.

Why?

As you know by now, the mel=ng of con=nental ice is a slow-responding

system, and it does not occur in the range of “hours”…!

Global map showing where 2017 heat content in the top 700 meters (2,300 feet) of the ocean was higher (orange) or lower (blue) than the 1993–2017 average. NOAA Climate.gov map, adapted from State of the Climate in 2017.

Modeled increase in the heat content of the upper 700 meters (2,300 feet) of the oceans, based on observations from 1993 to 2017 average. Oceans store much of the excess solar energy delivered to earth and so, they are effectively buffering us.

The connection to hurricanes is obvious. Warmer water means greater potential for evaporation, which means more fuel for hurricanes. It is often postulated that global warming will lead to more INTENSE, not frequent, hurricanes.

Please visit this site for further reading: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change- ocean-heat-content

The figure shows differences from the long- term average global ocean heat content (1955- 2006) in the top 700 meters of the ocean.

Major surface currents are set in motion by ________.

A) the wakes of ships B) salinity differences C) winds D) density differences E) shapes of coastlines

The answer is C.

Ocean gyres rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

A) True B) False

The answer is A.